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1Department of Preventive Medicine, Hanyang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
2Institute for Health and Society, Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea
© 2024, Korean Society of Epidemiology
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Conflict of interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare for this study. Mi Kyung Kim has been the associate editor of the Epidemiology and Health since 2021. She was not involved in the review process.
Funding
This work was supported by the Research Program funded by the Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2004-E71004-00, 2005-E71011-00, 2006-E71009-00, 2007-E71002-00, 2008-E71004-00, 2009-E71006-00, 2010-E71003-00, 2011-E71002-00, 2012-E71007-00, 2013-E71008-00, 2014-E71006-00, 2014E71006-01, 2016-E71001-00, 2017N-E71001-00) and by a National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MSIT) (No. NRF-2020R1A2C1004815).
Author contributions
Conceptualization: Lee J, Kong JS, Woo HW, Kim MK. Data curation: Lee J, Kong JS. Formal analysis: Lee J. Funding acquisition: Kim MK. Methodology: Lee J, Kong JS, Woo HW. Project administration: Lee J, Kong JS. Visualization: Lee J. Writing – original draft: Lee J, Kim MK, Woo HW. Writing – review & editing: Lee J, Kim MK, Kong JS.
Classes of antioxidants (5) | Subclasses of flavonoids (7) |
Individual antioxidants (48) |
|
---|---|---|---|
Components | No. of components1 | ||
Retinol | Retinol2 | 1 (0) | |
Vitamin C | Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) | 1 (1) | |
Vitamin E | Alpha-tocopherol, beta-tocopherol, gamma-tocopherol, delta-tocopherol | 4 (4) | |
Carotenoids | Alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, lycopene, beta-cryptoxanthin, lutein and zeaxanthin2 | 5 (5) | |
Flavonoids | Flavonols | Quercetin, kaempferol, myricetin, isorhamnetin | 4 (4) |
Flavones | Luteolin, apigenin | 2 (2) | |
Flavanones | Hesperetin, naringenin, eriodictyol | 3 (3) | |
Flavan-3-ols | Catechin, epicatechin, epigallocatechin, epicatechin 3-gallate, epigallocatechin 3-gallate, gallocatechin2, theaflavin, thearubigin, theaflavin 3-gallate, theaflavin 3´-gallate, theaflavin 3,3´-digallate | 11 (10) | |
Anthocyanins | Cyanidin, delphinidin, malvidin, pelargonidin, peonidin, petunidin | 6 (6) | |
Isoflavones | Total isoflavones2, daidzein, genistein, glycitein, biochanin, formononetin2 | 6 (4) | |
Proanthocyanidins | Dimers, trimers, 4-6 monomers2, 7-10 monomers2, polymers2 | 5 (2) |
Foods |
Database |
Imputation method |
Total no. of foods | Coverage (%) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
KMFDS | USDA | INRA | JMEXT | Moisture conversion | Calculation of recipe | Similar food items | Zero values | |||
Retinol (μg)1 | 362 | 282 | - | 7 | 5 | - | 6 | - | 408 | 99.0 |
Carotenoids (mg) | 378 | 92.2 | ||||||||
Alpha-carotene (μg) | - | 1862 | - | 70 | 11 | 19 | 31 | 61 | 91.7 | |
Beta-carotene (μg) | 361 | 252 | - | 5 | 8 | - | 10 | 3 | 412 | 100 |
Lycopene (μg) | - | 1852 | - | 68 | 17 | 19 | 33 | 61 | 383 | 93.0 |
Beta cryptoxanthin (μg) | - | 1862 | - | 68 | 11 | 19 | 33 | 61 | 378 | 91.7 |
Lutein and zeaxanthin (μg) | - | 1832 | - | - | 17 | 18 | 49 | 82 | 349 | 84.7 |
Vitamin C (mg) | 368 | 262 | - | 7 | 6 | - | 4 | - | 411 | 99.8 |
Vitamin E (mg) | 98.5 | |||||||||
Alpha-tocopherol (mg) | 360 | 242 | - | 9 | 7 | - | 8 | - | 408 | 99.0 |
Beta-tocopherol (mg) | 360 | 92 | - | 16 | 7 | - | 13 | - | 405 | 98.3 |
Gamma-tocopherol (mg) | 360 | 92 | - | 16 | 7 | - | 13 | - | 405 | 98.3 |
Delta-tocopherol (mg) | 360 | 92 | - | 16 | 7 | - | 13 | - | 405 | 98.3 |
Total flavonoids (mg) | 60.6 | |||||||||
Flavonols (mg) | 60.3 | |||||||||
Quercetin (mg) | - | 633 | 6 | - | 8 | 14 | 20 | 161 | 272 | 66.0 |
Kaempferol (mg) | - | 563 | 9 | - | 9 | 14 | 19 | 161 | 268 | 65.0 |
Myricetin (mg) | - | 503 | 8 | - | 8 | 12 | 20 | 161 | 259 | 62.9 |
Isorhamnetin (mg) | - | 123 | 11 | - | 1 | 5 | 3 | 162 | 194 | 47.1 |
Flavones (mg) | 47.7 | |||||||||
Luteolin (mg) | - | 193 | 8 | - | - | 3 | 7 | 162 | 199 | 48.3 |
Apigenin (mg) | - | 213 | 1 | - | - | 3 | 7 | 162 | 194 | 47.1 |
Flavanones (mg) | 45.6 | |||||||||
Hesperetin (mg) | - | 193 | 8 | - | - | 3 | 7 | 162 | 199 | 48.3 |
Naringenin (mg) | - | 213 | 1 | - | - | 3 | 7 | 162 | 194 | 47.1 |
Eriodictyol (mg) | - | 13 | 5 | - | - | - | 3 | 162 | 171 | 41.5 |
Flavan-3-ols (mg) | 75.5 | |||||||||
Catechin (mg) | - | 363 | 6 | - | 2 | 5 | 19 | 161 | 229 | 55.6 |
Epicatechin (mg) | - | 373 | 6 | - | 2 | 9 | 18 | 161 | 233 | 56.6 |
Epigallocatechin (mg) | - | 333 | 4 | - | 3 | 5 | 20 | 161 | 226 | 54.9 |
Epicatechin 3-gallate (mg) | - | 333 | 4 | - | 3 | 4 | 20 | 161 | 225 | 54.6 |
Epigallocatechin 3-gallate (mg) | - | 333 | 4 | - | 3 | 5 | 18 | 161 | 224 | 54.4 |
Gallocatechin (mg)1 | - | 33 | 4 | - | 3 | 5 | 20 | 161 | 226 | 54.9 |
Theaflavin (mg) | - | 13 | - | - | - | - | - | 411 | 412 | 100 |
Thearubigin (mg) | - | 13 | - | - | - | - | - | 411 | 412 | 100 |
Theaflavin 3-gallate (mg) | - | 13 | - | - | - | - | - | 411 | 412 | 100 |
Theaflavin 3´-gallate (mg) | - | 13 | - | - | - | - | - | 411 | 412 | 100 |
Theaflavin 3,3´-digallate (mg) | - | 13 | - | - | - | - | - | 411 | 412 | 100 |
Anthocyanins (mg) | 71.4 | |||||||||
Cyanidin (mg) | - | 213 | 4 | - | - | 3 | 7 | 264 | 299 | 72.6 |
Delphinidin (mg) | - | 163 | 2 | - | - | 4 | 6 | 267 | 295 | 71.6 |
Malvidin (mg) | - | 143 | 2 | - | - | 4 | 6 | 267 | 293 | 71.1 |
Pelargonidin (mg) | - | 173 | - | - | - | 3 | 6 | 267 | 293 | 71.1 |
Peonidin (mg) | - | 153 | 2 | - | - | 3 | 6 | 267 | 293 | 71.1 |
Petunidin (mg) | - | 143 | 2 | - | - | 4 | 6 | 267 | 293 | 71.1 |
Isoflavones (mg) | 60.9 | |||||||||
Daidzein (mg) | - | 764 | 1 | - | 9 | 25 | 28 | 154 | 293 | 71.1 |
Genistein (mg) | - | 764 | 1 | - | 9 | 25 | 28 | 154 | 293 | 71.1 |
Glycitein (mg) | - | 344 | 1 | - | 6 | 17 | 9 | 155 | 222 | 53.9 |
Biochanin (mg) | - | 104 | - | - | 7 | 14 | 3 | 161 | 195 | 47.3 |
Formononetin (mg)1 | - | 24 | - | - | 8 | 17 | 10 | 159 | 218 | 52.9 |
Proanthocyanidins (mg) | 63.1 | |||||||||
Dimers (mg) | - | 525 | 5 | - | 6 | 24 | 21 | 161 | 269 | 65.3 |
Trimers (mg) | - | 505 | 4 | - | 7 | 24 | 20 | 161 | 266 | 64.6 |
4-6 monomers (mg)1 | - | 455 | 2 | - | 6 | 23 | 20 | 161 | 257 | 62.4 |
7-10 monomers (mg)1 | - | 455 | 2 | - | 5 | 23 | 20 | 161 | 256 | 62.1 |
Polymers (mg)1 | - | 435 | 2 | - | 5 | 23 | 18 | 161 | 252 | 61.2 |
KMFDS, Food and Nutrient Database of the Korea Ministry of Food and Drug Safety (accessed on July 17, 2020); USDA, United States Department of Agriculture; INRA, Phenol-Explorer 3.6 of Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (accessed on May 25, 2020); JMEXT, Standard Tables of Food Composition in Japan (2015; 7th edition) of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology Japan (accessed on May 6, 2020).
1 These components (retinol; gallocatechin from the flavan-3-ols; formononetin from the isoflavones; and 4-6 monomers, 7-10 monomers, and polymers from the proanthocyanidins) were not included in the estimation of dietary total antioxidant capacity.
2 USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, release 28 (2015).
3 USDA Database for the Flavonoid Content of Selected Foods, release 3.3 (2018).
4 USDA Database for the Isoflavone Content of Selected Foods, release 2.1.
5 USDA Database for the Proanthocyanidin Content of Selected Foods, release 2.1 (accessed on May 25, 2020).
Component of antioxidant database | Total |
Unadjusted daily intake (mean±SD) |
Age-adjusted daily intake average (mean±SE) |
||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Men | Women | Men | Women | ||
Total (n) | 195,961 | 69,090 | 126,871 | 69,090 | 126,871 |
Total energy intake (kcal/day) | 1,678±516 | 1,779±2 | 1,624±1 | 1,787±2 | 1,619±1 |
dTAC (mg VCE/day) | 392±445 | 380±2 | 398±1 | 385±2 | 396±1 |
Five classes of antioxidants | |||||
Retinol (μg/day) | 91.3±86.2 | 88.6±0.3 | 92.9±0.2 | 89.8±0.3 | 92.2±0.2 |
Carotenoids (mg/day) | 8.34±7.50 | 7.48±0.03 | 8.8±0.02 | 7.51±0.03 | 8.79±0.02 |
Alpha-carotene (μg/day) | 360±563 | 318±2 | 382±2 | 320±2 | 381±2 |
Beta-carotene (μg/day) | 2,105±1,644 | 2,033±6 | 2,144±5 | 2,041±6 | 2,139±5 |
Lycopene (μg/day) | 3,461±5,171 | 2,912±20 | 3,760±15 | 2,921±20 | 3,755±15 |
Beta cryptoxanthin (μg/day) | 395±467 | 329±2 | 431±1 | 330±2 | 430±1 |
Lutein and zeaxanthin (μg/day) | 2,016±2,008 | 1,887±8 | 2,086±6 | 1,899±8 | 2,080±6 |
Vitamin C (mg/day) | 59.3±42.4 | 52.6±0.2 | 62.9±0.1 | 53.0±0.2 | 62.7±0.1 |
Vitamin E (mg/day) | 5.49±3.70 | 5.65±0.01 | 5.40±0.01 | 5.70±0.01 | 5.37±0.01 |
Alpha-tocopherol (mg/day) | 1.92±1.22 | 2.02±0.00 | 1.87±0.00 | 2.05±0.00 | 1.86±0.00 |
Beta-tocopherol (mg/day) | 0.09±0.08 | 0.10±0.00 | 0.08±0.00 | 0.11±0.00 | 0.08±0.00 |
Gamma-tocopherol (mg/day) | 2.51±1.95 | 2.54±0.01 | 2.49±0.01 | 2.55±0.01 | 2.48±0.01 |
Delta-tocopherol (mg/day) | 0.97±0.85 | 0.99±0.00 | 0.96±0.00 | 1.00±0.00 | 0.96±0.00 |
Total flavonoids (mg/day) | 228±224 | 213±1 | 237±1 | 215±1 | 236±1 |
Seven subclasses of flavonoids | |||||
Flavonols (mg/day) | 22.1±18.5 | 21.6±0.1 | 22.3±0.1 | 21.8±0.1 | 22.2±0.1 |
Quercetin (mg/day) | 14.0±13.1 | 13.0±0.1 | 14.5±0.0 | 13.1±0.1 | 14.4±0.0 |
Kaempferol (mg/day) | 5.86±5.78 | 6.29±0.02 | 5.63±0.02 | 6.32±0.02 | 5.62±0.02 |
Myricetin (mg/day) | 1.40±1.40 | 1.46±0.01 | 1.37±0.00 | 1.48±0.01 | 1.36±0.00 |
Isorhamnetin (mg/day) | 0.83±0.88 | 0.85±0.00 | 0.81±0.00 | 0.85±0.00 | 0.81±0.00 |
Flavones (mg/day) | 2.00±1.49 | 1.85±0.01 | 2.09±0.00 | 1.87±0.01 | 2.08±0.00 |
Luteolin (mg/day) | 1.16±0.83 | 1.12±0.00 | 1.18±0.00 | 1.12±0.00 | 1.18±0.00 |
Apigenin (mg/day) | 0.85±0.92 | 0.74±0.00 | 0.91±0.00 | 0.75±0.00 | 0.90±0.00 |
Flavanones (mg/day) | 9.74±13.30 | 7.70±0.05 | 10.9±0.00 | 7.83±0.05 | 10.8±0.00 |
Hesperetin (mg/day) | 4.43±7.51 | 3.61±0.03 | 4.88±0.02 | 3.68±0.03 | 4.84±0.02 |
Naringenin (mg/day) | 5.29±6.84 | 4.07±0.03 | 5.95±0.02 | 4.13±0.03 | 5.91±0.02 |
Eriodictyol (mg/day) | 0.02±0.04 | 0.02±0.00 | 0.03±0.00 | 0.02±0.00 | 0.03±0.00 |
Flavan-3-ols (mg/day) | 85.1±161.00 | 87.9±1.00 | 83.5±0.00 | 89.6±1.00 | 82.6±0.00 |
Catechin (mg/day) | 6.11±6.99 | 5.54±0.03 | 6.42±0.02 | 5.62±0.03 | 6.37±0.02 |
Epicatechin (mg/day) | 9.94±11.73 | 9.60±0.04 | 10.20±0.00 | 9.70±0.04 | 10.10±0.00 |
Epigallocatechin (mg/day) | 17.3±35.2 | 18.2±0.1 | 16.8±0.1 | 18.6±0.1 | 16.6±0.1 |
Epicatechin 3-gallate (mg/day) | 10.5±21.6 | 11.0±0.1 | 10.2±0.1 | 11.2±0.1 | 10.1±0.1 |
Epigallocatechin 3-gallate (mg/day) | 39.7±84.4 | 42.0±0.3 | 38.4±0.2 | 42.8±0.3 | 38.0±0.2 |
Gallocatechin (mg/day) | 0.90±1.85 | 0.94±0.01 | 0.87±0.01 | 0.96±0.01 | 0.86±0.01 |
Theaflavin (mg/day) | 0.03±0.06 | 0.03±0.00 | 0.03±0.00 | 0.03±0.00 | 0.03±0.00 |
Thearubigin (mg/day) | 0.61±1.30 | 0.64±0.00 | 0.59±0.00 | 0.66±0.00 | 0.58±0.00 |
Theaflavin 3-gallate (mg/day)2 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Theaflavin 3´-gallate (mg/day) | 0.01±0.01 | 0.01±0.00 | 0.01±0.00 | 0.01±0.00 | 0.01±0.00 |
Theaflavin 3,3´-digallate (mg/day) | 0.01±0.01 | 0.01±0.00 | 0.01±0.00 | 0.01±0.00 | 0.01±0.00 |
Anthocyanins (mg/day) | 10.50±12.70 | 8.46±0.05 | 11.60±0.00 | 8.55±0.05 | 11.50±0.00 |
Cyanidin (mg/day) | 2.09±2.39 | 1.72±0.01 | 2.29±0.01 | 1.73±0.01 | 2.29±0.01 |
Delphinidin (mg/day) | 0.33±0.52 | 0.26±0.00 | 0.37±0.00 | 0.27±0.00 | 0.37±0.00 |
Malvidin (mg/day) | 4.58±7.70 | 3.59±0.03 | 5.12±0.02 | 3.63±0.03 | 5.10±0.02 |
Pelargonidin (mg/day) | 2.67±3.61 | 2.27±0.01 | 2.88±0.01 | 2.29±0.01 | 2.87±0.01 |
Peonidin (mg/day) | 0.54±0.88 | 0.43±0.00 | 0.61±0.00 | 0.43±0.00 | 0.61±0.00 |
Petunidin (mg/day) | 0.25±0.41 | 0.20±0.00 | 0.28±0.00 | 0.20±0.00 | 0.28±0.00 |
Isoflavones (mg/day) | 20.4±17.9 | 20.3±0.1 | 20.5±0.1 | 20.2±0.1 | 20.5±0.1 |
Daidzein (mg/day) | 8.58±7.49 | 8.53±0.03 | 8.61±0.02 | 8.52±0.03 | 8.62±0.02 |
Genistein (mg/day) | 9.80±8.73 | 9.69±0.03 | 9.86±0.02 | 9.68±0.03 | 9.87±0.02 |
Glycitein (mg/day) | 1.89±1.71 | 1.86±0.01 | 1.90±0.00 | 1.85±0.01 | 1.90±0.00 |
Biochanin (mg/day) | 0.01±0.02 | 0.01±0.00 | 0.01±0.00 | 0.01±0.00 | 0.01±0.00 |
Formononetin (mg/day) | 0.16±0.13 | 0.18±0.00 | 0.14±0.00 | 0.18±0.00 | 0.14±0.00 |
Proanthocyanidins (mg/day) | 78.6±85.2 | 65.0±0.3 | 86.1±0.2 | 65.5±0.3 | 85.8±0.2 |
Dimers (mg/day) | 12.2±12.4 | 10.5±0.1 | 13.2±0.0 | 10.6±0.1 | 13.1±0.0 |
Trimers (mg/day) | 6.57±6.02 | 5.69±0.02 | 7.04±0.02 | 5.72±0.02 | 7.03±0.02 |
4-6 monomers (mg/day) | 17.7±20.1 | 14.7±0.1 | 19.4±0.1 | 14.8±0.1 | 19.3±0.1 |
7-10 monomers (mg/day) | 13.3±17.4 | 10.7±0.1 | 14.7±0.1 | 10.8±0.1 | 14.6±0.1 |
Polymers (mg/day) | 28.9±31.5 | 23.5±0.1 | 31.8±0.1 | 23.7±0.1 | 31.7±0.1 |
dTAC, dietary total antioxidant capacity; KoGES, Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study; VCE, vitamin C equivalent.
1 All p-values for comparisons by gender, obtained via Student t-test for unadjusted consumption and the general linear model for age-adjusted consumption, were <0.001.
2 The content was zero for all food items in the food frequency questionnaire.
Characteristics | % | dTAC (mg VCE/day) | p-value1 |
Five classes of antioxidants |
|||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Retinol (μg/day) | p-value1 | Carotenoids (mg/day) | p-value1 | Vitamin C (mg/day) | p-value1 | Vitamin E (mg/day) | p-value1 | Total flavonoids (mg/day) | p-value1 | ||||
Total (n=195,961) | |||||||||||||
Cohort study | |||||||||||||
ASAS | 3.8 | 469±5.13a | <0.001 | 83.9±0.99a | <0.001 | 7.62±0.09a | <0.001 | 53.9±0.49a | <0.001 | 6.23±0.04a | <0.001 | 261±2.58a | <0.001 |
CAVAS | 10.9 | 341±3.09b | 71.6±0.60b | 7.04±0.05b | 49.6±0.29b | 5.00±0.03b | 190±1.56b | ||||||
HEXA | 85.3 | 393±1.13c | 93.8±0.22b | 8.32±0.02c | 59.1±0.11c | 5.57±0.01c | 228±0.57c | ||||||
Gender | |||||||||||||
Men | 35.3 | 385±1.68 | <0.001 | 89.8±0.33 | <0.001 | 7.51±0.03 | <0.001 | 53.0±0.16 | <0.001 | 5.70±0.01 | <0.001 | 215±0.85 | <0.001 |
Women | 64.7 | 396±1.24 | 92.2±0.24 | 8.79±0.02 | 62.7±0.12 | 5.37±0.01 | 236±0.63 | ||||||
Age (yr) | |||||||||||||
40-49 | 34.6 | 440±1.73a | <0.001 | 102±0.34a | <0.001 | 8.27±0.03a | <0.001 | 60.8±0.16a | <0.001 | 6.02±0.01a | <0.001 | 248±0.87a | <0.001 |
50-59 | 37.5 | 399±1.67b | 91.7±0.32b | 8.47±0.03b | 59.5±0.16b | 5.55±0.01b | 232±0.84b | ||||||
60-69 | 24.2 | 328±2.04c | 78.7±0.39c | 7.80±0.03c | 53.6±0.19c | 5.02±0.02c | 196±1.03c | ||||||
70+ | 3.7 | 248±5.17d | 58.2±1.00d | 6.17±0.09d | 41.6±0.49d | 4.28±0.04d | 148±2.60d | ||||||
Higher education2 | |||||||||||||
Yes | 60.8 | 424±1.34 | <0.001 | 98.6±0.26 | <0.001 | 8.68±0.02 | <0.001 | 62.1±0.13 | <0.001 | 5.84±0.01 | <0.001 | 247±0.67 | <0.001 |
No | 39.2 | 331±1.79 | 77.8±0.35 | 7.24±0.03 | 50.6±0.17 | 5.02±0.01 | 188±0.90 | ||||||
Smoking status | |||||||||||||
Never smoker | 72.1 | 398±1.62a | <0.001 | 91.4±0.31a | <0.001 | 8.40±0.03a | <0.001 | 59.4±0.15a | <0.001 | 5.52±0.01a | 0.006 | 231±0.82a | <0.001 |
Past smoker | 14.9 | 401±2.92a | 91.9±0.57a | 8.07±0.05b | 57.6±0.28b | 5.60±0.02b | 231±1.47a | ||||||
Current smoker | 13.0 | 350±3.02b | 88.4±0.58b | 7.34±0.05c | 52.4±0.29c | 5.51±0.03a | 197±1.52b | ||||||
Drinking status | |||||||||||||
Never drinker | 50.7 | 381±1.65a | <0.001 | 88.8±0.32a | <0.001 | 8.33±0.03a | <0.001 | 59.0±0.16a | <0.001 | 5.51±0.01a | <0.001 | 224±0.83a | 0.001 |
Past drinker | 4.3 | 401±4.86b | 90.8±0.94a,b | 8.27±0.08a | 59.2±0.46a | 5.73±0.04b | 234±2.45b | ||||||
Current drinker | 45.1 | 397±1.51b | 92.8±0.29b | 7.97±0.03b | 56.7±0.14b | 5.54±0.01a | 226±0.76a | ||||||
Regular exercise3 | |||||||||||||
Yes | 34.3 | 448±1.74 | <0.001 | 101±0.34 | <0.001 | 9.14±0.03 | <0.001 | 64.0±0.17 | <0.001 | 5.93±0.01 | <0.001 | 260±0.88 | <0.001 |
No | 65.6 | 358±1.28 | 85.0±0.25 | 7.59±0.02 | 54.4±0.12 | 5.31±0.01 | 206±0.64 | ||||||
BMI (kg/m2) | |||||||||||||
<23 | 38.4 | 368±1.68a | <0.001 | 91.2±0.32a,b | 0.009 | 8.06±0.03a | <0.001 | 57.5±0.16a | <0.001 | 5.47±0.01a | <0.001 | 217±0.84a | <0.001 |
≥23 to <25 | 27.6 | 399±1.92b | 91.7±0.37a | 8.24±0.03b | 58.5±0.18b | 5.54±0.02b | 230±0.97b | ||||||
≥25 | 34.1 | 406±1.72c | 90.2±0.33b | 8.17±0.03b | 57.7±0.16a | 5.60±0.01c | 230±0.87b | ||||||
Waist circumference (cm) | |||||||||||||
<90 for men/85 for women | 73.1 | 386±1.22 | <0.001 | 91.6±0.24 | <0.001 | 8.17±0.02 | 0.003 | 58.3±0.12 | <0.001 | 5.52±0.01 | 0.137 | 225±0.62 | 0.577 |
≥90 for men/85 for women | 26.9 | 398±1.96 | 89.0±0.38 | 8.06±0.03 | 56.6±0.19 | 5.55±0.02 | 225±0.99 | ||||||
Menopause (for women) | |||||||||||||
Yes | 64.4 | 404±1.81 | <0.001 | 93.9±0.36 | <0.001 | 9.07±0.03 | <0.001 | 64.5±0.18 | <0.001 | 5.44±0.02 | <0.001 | 241±0.93 | <0.001 |
No | 35.6 | 387±2.69 | 90.8±0.53 | 8.32±0.05 | 60.1±0.27 | 5.32±0.02 | 229±1.38 |
Characteristics | % |
Seven subclasses of flavonoids (mg/day) |
|||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Flavonols | p-value1 | Flavones | p-value1 | Flavanones | p-value1 | Flavan-3-ols | p-value1 | Anthocyanins | p-value1 | Isoflavones | p-value1 | Proanthocyanidins | p-value1 | ||
Total (n=195,961) | |||||||||||||||
Cohort study | |||||||||||||||
ASAS | 3.8 | 23.1±0.21a | <0.001 | 2.05±0.02a | <0.001 | 9.78±0.15a | <0.001 | 118±1.86a | <0.001 | 9.54±0.15a | <0.001 | 28.4±0.21a | <0.001 | 70.1±0.98a | <0.001 |
CAVAS | 10.9 | 19.1±0.13b | 1.91±0.01b | 8.85±0.09b | 76.5±1.12b | 8.31±0.09b | 19.6±0.13b | 55.9±0.59b | |||||||
HEXA | 85.3 | 22.3±0.05c | 1.98±0.00c | 9.34±0.03c | 85.8±0.41c | 10.3±0.03c | 20.1±0.05c | 78.5±0.22c | |||||||
Gender | |||||||||||||||
Men | 35.3 | 21.8±0.07 | <0.001 | 1.87±0.01 | <0.001 | 7.80±0.05 | <0.001 | 89.6±0.61 | <0.001 | 8.50±0.05 | <0.001 | 20.2±0.07 | 0.001 | 65.5±0.32 | <0.001 |
Women | 64.7 | 22.2±0.05 | 2.08±0.00 | 10.8±0.04 | 82.6±0.45 | 11.5±0.04 | 20.5±0.05 | 85.8±0.24 | |||||||
Age (yr) | |||||||||||||||
40-49 | 34.6 | 22.9±0.07a | <0.001 | 2.12±0.01a | <0.001 | 10.6±0.05a | <0.001 | 104±0.63a | <0.001 | 10.7±0.05a | <0.001 | 19.8±0.07a | <0.001 | 78.2±0.33a | <0.001 |
50-59 | 37.5 | 22.7±0.07a | 2.01±0.01b | 9.40±0.05b | 87.3±0.60b | 10.5±0.05b | 20.9±0.07b | 78.7±0.32a | |||||||
60-69 | 24.2 | 20.4±0.09b | 1.79±0.01c | 7.84±0.06c | 65.3±0.74c | 8.90±0.06c | 20.7±0.08b | 71.1±0.39b | |||||||
≥70 | 3.7 | 16.2±0.22c | 1.44±0.02d | 5.82±0.15d | 47.1±1.88d | 6.40±0.15d | 19.3±0.21a | 51.9±0.99c | |||||||
Higher education2 | |||||||||||||||
Yes | 60.8 | 22.8±0.06 | <0.001 | 2.05±0.00 | <0.001 | 10.2±0.04 | <0.001 | 95.1±0.49 | <0.001 | 11.0±0.04 | <0.001 | 20.8±0.05 | <0.001 | 85.4±0.25 | <0.001 |
No | 39.2 | 20.6±0.07 | 1.85±0.01 | 7.80±0.05 | 70.5±0.65 | 8.40±0.05 | 19.6±0.07 | 59.0±0.34 | |||||||
Smoking status | |||||||||||||||
Never smoker | 72.1 | 22.1±0.07a | 0.019 | 1.99±0.01a | <0.001 | 9.74±0.05a | <0.001 | 87.4±0.59a | <0.001 | 10.5±0.05a | <0.001 | 20.4±0.07a | <0.001 | 79.1±0.31a | <0.001 |
Past smoker | 14.9 | 22.0±0.12a,b | 1.97±0.01a | 9.18±0.09b | 90.3±1.06a | 9.98±0.08a | 20.6±0.12a | 77.4±0.56b | |||||||
Current smoker | 13.0 | 21.6±0.13b | 1.90±0.01b | 7.88±0.09c | 76.3±1.10b | 8.45±0.09c | 19.9±0.12b | 61.2±0.58c | |||||||
Drinking status | |||||||||||||||
Never drinker | 50.7 | 21.7±0.07a | <0.001 | 1.95±0.01a | <0.001 | 9.59±0.05a | <0.001 | 81.2±0.60a | <0.001 | 10.5±0.05a | <0.001 | 20.5±0.07a | <0.001 | 78.8±0.32a | <0.001 |
Past drinker | 4.3 | 22.0±0.20a,b | 1.99±0.02a,b | 9.82±0.14a | 88.1±1.76b | 10.5±0.14a | 21.5±0.20b | 80.0±0.93a | |||||||
Current drinker | 45.1 | 22.3±0.06b | 1.99±0.01b | 9.01±0.04b | 90.1±0.55b | 9.62±0.04b | 20.1±0.06c | 72.5±0.29b | |||||||
Regular exercise3 | |||||||||||||||
Yes | 34.3 | 24.1±0.07 | <0.001 | 2.13±0.01 | <0.001 | 10.3±0.05 | <0.001 | 102±0.63 | <0.001 | 11.4±0.05 | <0.001 | 22.1±0.07 | <0.001 | 88.9±0.33 | <0.001 |
No | 65.6 | 20.8±0.05 | 1.89±0.00 | 8.78±0.04 | 77.6±0.46 | 9.30±0.04 | 19.5±0.05 | 68.6±0.24 | |||||||
BMI (kg/m2) | |||||||||||||||
<23 | 38.4 | 21.1±0.07a | <0.001 | 1.90±0.01a | <0.001 | 9.40±0.05a | <0.001 | 77.5±0.61a | <0.001 | 10.2±0.05a | <0.001 | 20.1±0.07a | <0.001 | 77.1±0.32a | <0.001 |
≥23 to <25 | 27.6 | 22.2±0.08b | 1.99±0.01b | 9.40±0.06a | 89.0±0.70b | 10.2±0.05a | 20.5±0.08b | 76.9±0.37a | |||||||
≥25 | 34.1 | 22.7±0.07c | 2.03±0.01c | 9.12±0.05b | 92.6±0.63c | 9.77±0.05b | 20.6±0.07b | 73.1±0.33b | |||||||
Waist circumference (cm) | |||||||||||||||
<90 for men/85 for women | 73.1 | 21.8±0.05 | <0.001 | 1.95±0.00 | <0.001 | 9.40±0.04 | <0.001 | 83.8±0.44 | <0.001 | 10.2±0.03 | <0.001 | 20.4±0.05 | 0.812 | 77.7±0.23 | <0.001 |
≥90 for men/85 for women | 26.9 | 22.5±0.08 | 2.01±0.01 | 8.96±0.06 | 91.0±0.71 | 9.50±0.06 | 20.4±0.08 | 70.2±0.38 | |||||||
Menopause (for women) | |||||||||||||||
Yes | 64.4 | 22.8±0.08 | <0.001 | 2.12±0.01 | <0.001 | 11.0±0.06 | <0.001 | 83.8±0.65 | 0.385 | 11.9±0.06 | <0.001 | 21.0±0.07 | <0.001 | 88.5±0.37 | <0.001 |
No | 35.6 | 21.2±0.12 | 2.02±0.01 | 10.6±0.09 | 82.6±0.96 | 11.0±0.08 | 19.7±0.11 | 81.8±0.55 |
Values are presented as mean±standard error; Mean values with different superscripts (a, b, c) within a row represent significant differences among the exposure groups on the Tukey multiple comparison test.
dTAC, dietary total antioxidant capacity; BMI, body mass index; ASAS, Ansan and Ansung study; HEXA, Health Examinee study; CAVAS, Cardiovascular Disease Association Study.
1 p-values were obtained with the general linear model after adjusting for age and gender; The age-adjusted average for gender and gender-adjusted average for age are presented.
2 A “yes” response was defined as ≥12 years of schooling.
3 A “yes” response was defined as exercising ≥3 times/wk for ≥30 min/session, while a “no” response indicated exercising <3 times/wk and/or <30 min/session.
Characteristics | Prevalence (%) | dTAC (mg VCE/day) | p-value1 |
Five classes of antioxidants |
|||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Retinol (μg/day) | p-value1 | Carotenoids (mg/day) | p-value1 | Vitamin C (mg/day) | p-value1 | Vitamin E (mg/day) | p-value1 | Total flavonoids (mg/day) | p-value1 | ||||
n=195,961 | |||||||||||||
Cancer | |||||||||||||
Yes | 3.2 | 429±10.1 | 0.021 | 89.0±1.99 | <0.001 | 9.12±0.18 | <0.001 | 63.2±1.01 | <0.001 | 5.71±0.08 | 0.258 | 249±5.18 | <0.001 |
No | 96.8 | 412±7.30 | 95.2±1.43 | 8.44±0.13 | 59.1±0.73 | 5.64±0.06 | 234±3.74 | ||||||
Cardiovascular disease | |||||||||||||
Yes | 4.1 | 424±10.6 | 0.450 | 89.8±2.08 | 0.004 | 8.87±0.19 | 0.216 | 61.3±1.05 | 0.665 | 5.64±0.09 | 0.314 | 242±5.41 | 0.629 |
No | 95.9 | 417±7.17 | 94.4±1.41 | 8.68±0.13 | 61.0±0.72 | 5.71±0.06 | 240±3.67 | ||||||
Diabetes mellitus | |||||||||||||
Yes | 8.6 | 419±9.22 | 0.580 | 90.5±1.81 | 0.007 | 8.76±0.16 | 0.762 | 59.2±0.92 | <0.001 | 5.66±0.08 | 0.739 | 236±4.73 | 0.001 |
No | 91.4 | 422±7.82 | 93.6±1.54 | 8.79±0.14 | 63.0±0.78 | 5.68±0.06 | 246±4.00 | ||||||
Hypertension | |||||||||||||
Yes | 29.8 | 420±8.30 | 0.728 | 90.1±1.63 | <0.001 | 8.74±0.15 | 0.252 | 60.8±0.83 | 0.109 | 5.67±0.07 | 0.991 | 240±4.25 | 0.313 |
No | 70.2 | 421±8.14 | 94.0±1.60 | 8.81±0.14 | 61.4±0.81 | 5.67±0.07 | 242±4.17 | ||||||
Metabolic syndrome | |||||||||||||
Yes | 23.9 | 410±8.37 | <0.001 | 88.2±1.65 | <0.001 | 8.61±0.15 | <0.001 | 60.1±0.84 | <0.001 | 5.59±0.07 | <0.001 | 235±4.29 | <0.001 |
No | 76.1 | 430±8.21 | 96.0±1.61 | 8.94±0.15 | 62.2±0.82 | 5.75±0.07 | 247±4.21 |
Characteristics | Prevalence (%) |
Seven subclasses of flavonoids (mg/day) |
|||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Flavonols | p-value1 | Flavones | p-value1 | Flavanones | p-value1 | Flavan-3-ols | p-value1 | Anthocyanins | p-value1 | Isoflavones | p-value1 | Proanthocyanidins | p-value1 | ||
Cancer | |||||||||||||||
Yes | 3.2 | 23.5±0.43 | 0.393 | 2.08±0.04 | 0.126 | 10.2±0.32 | 0.001 | 95.1±3.64 | 0.458 | 10.9±0.31 | <0.001 | 21.4±0.41 | 0.107 | 85.7±2.09 | <0.001 |
No | 96.8 | 23.2±0.31 | 2.04±0.03 | 9.39±0.23 | 93.2±2.63 | 9.87±0.23 | 21.0±0.30 | 74.8±1.51 | |||||||
Cardiovascular disease | |||||||||||||||
Yes | 4.1 | 23.7±0.45 | 0.101 | 2.06±0.04 | 0.827 | 9.87±0.34 | 0.562 | 95.1±3.80 | 0.537 | 10.6±0.33 | 0.116 | 21.1±0.43 | 0.692 | 79.9±2.18 | 0.639 |
No | 95.9 | 23.1±0.31 | 2.06±0.02 | 9.71±0.23 | 93.2±2.58 | 10.2±0.22 | 21.3±0.29 | 80.7±1.48 | |||||||
Diabetes mellitus | |||||||||||||||
Yes | 8.6 | 23.4±0.40 | 0.964 | 2.01±0.03 | <0.001 | 9.00±0.30 <0.001 | 95.8±3.32 | 0.120 | 9.47±0.29 | <0.001 | 21.3±0.37 | 0.326 | 75.2±1.91 | <0.001 | |
No | 91.4 | 23.4±0.34 | 2.11±0.03 | 10.6±0.25 | 92.5±2.81 | 11.3±0.24 | 21.1±0.32 | 85.3±1.61 | |||||||
Hypertension | |||||||||||||||
Yes | 29.8 | 23.4±0.36 | 0.662 | 2.06±0.03 | 0.959 | 9.70±0.27 | 0.110 | 94.2±2.99 | 0.899 | 10.3±0.26 | 0.010 | 21.2±0.34 | 0.820 | 79.5±1.71 | 0.033 |
No | 70.2 | 23.3±0.35 | 2.06±0.03 | 9.88±0.26 | 94.1±2.93 | 10.5±0.25 | 21.2±0.33 | 81.0±1.68 | |||||||
Metabolic syndrome | |||||||||||||||
Yes | 23.9 | 23.1±0.36 | 0.002 | 2.03±0.03 | 0.001 | 9.61±0.27 | 0.007 | 91.5±3.01 | <0.001 | 10.2±0.26 | <0.001 | 21.0±0.34 | 0.005 | 77.7±1.73 | <0.001 |
No | 76.1 | 23.6±0.35 | 2.08±0.03 | 9.97±0.26 | 96.9±2.95 | 10.6±0.25 | 21.4±0.33 | 82.9±1.70 |
Values are presented as mean±standard error.
dTAC, dietary total antioxidant capacity.
1 p-values were obtained with the general linear model after adjusting for gender, age (years), education level (≥12 years of schooling or less), smoking status (never/past/current), drinking status (never/past/current), regular exercise (≥3 times/wk and ≥30 min/session or not), body mass index (kg/m2), menopausal status (yes or no, for women only), and other diseases.
Classes of antioxidants (5) | Subclasses of flavonoids (7) | Individual antioxidants (48) |
|
---|---|---|---|
Components | No. of components |
||
Retinol | Retinol |
1 (0) | |
Vitamin C | Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) | 1 (1) | |
Vitamin E | Alpha-tocopherol, beta-tocopherol, gamma-tocopherol, delta-tocopherol | 4 (4) | |
Carotenoids | Alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, lycopene, beta-cryptoxanthin, lutein and zeaxanthin |
5 (5) | |
Flavonoids | Flavonols | Quercetin, kaempferol, myricetin, isorhamnetin | 4 (4) |
Flavones | Luteolin, apigenin | 2 (2) | |
Flavanones | Hesperetin, naringenin, eriodictyol | 3 (3) | |
Flavan-3-ols | Catechin, epicatechin, epigallocatechin, epicatechin 3-gallate, epigallocatechin 3-gallate, gallocatechin2, theaflavin, thearubigin, theaflavin 3-gallate, theaflavin 3´-gallate, theaflavin 3,3´-digallate | 11 (10) | |
Anthocyanins | Cyanidin, delphinidin, malvidin, pelargonidin, peonidin, petunidin | 6 (6) | |
Isoflavones | Total isoflavones |
6 (4) | |
Proanthocyanidins | Dimers, trimers, 4-6 monomers |
5 (2) |
Foods | Database |
Imputation method |
Total no. of foods | Coverage (%) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
KMFDS | USDA | INRA | JMEXT | Moisture conversion | Calculation of recipe | Similar food items | Zero values | |||
Retinol (μg) |
362 | 28 |
- | 7 | 5 | - | 6 | - | 408 | 99.0 |
Carotenoids (mg) | 378 | 92.2 | ||||||||
Alpha-carotene (μg) | - | 186 |
- | 70 | 11 | 19 | 31 | 61 | 91.7 | |
Beta-carotene (μg) | 361 | 25 |
- | 5 | 8 | - | 10 | 3 | 412 | 100 |
Lycopene (μg) | - | 185 |
- | 68 | 17 | 19 | 33 | 61 | 383 | 93.0 |
Beta cryptoxanthin (μg) | - | 186 |
- | 68 | 11 | 19 | 33 | 61 | 378 | 91.7 |
Lutein and zeaxanthin (μg) | - | 183 |
- | - | 17 | 18 | 49 | 82 | 349 | 84.7 |
Vitamin C (mg) | 368 | 26 |
- | 7 | 6 | - | 4 | - | 411 | 99.8 |
Vitamin E (mg) | 98.5 | |||||||||
Alpha-tocopherol (mg) | 360 | 24 |
- | 9 | 7 | - | 8 | - | 408 | 99.0 |
Beta-tocopherol (mg) | 360 | 9 |
- | 16 | 7 | - | 13 | - | 405 | 98.3 |
Gamma-tocopherol (mg) | 360 | 9 |
- | 16 | 7 | - | 13 | - | 405 | 98.3 |
Delta-tocopherol (mg) | 360 | 9 |
- | 16 | 7 | - | 13 | - | 405 | 98.3 |
Total flavonoids (mg) | 60.6 | |||||||||
Flavonols (mg) | 60.3 | |||||||||
Quercetin (mg) | - | 63 |
6 | - | 8 | 14 | 20 | 161 | 272 | 66.0 |
Kaempferol (mg) | - | 56 |
9 | - | 9 | 14 | 19 | 161 | 268 | 65.0 |
Myricetin (mg) | - | 50 |
8 | - | 8 | 12 | 20 | 161 | 259 | 62.9 |
Isorhamnetin (mg) | - | 12 |
11 | - | 1 | 5 | 3 | 162 | 194 | 47.1 |
Flavones (mg) | 47.7 | |||||||||
Luteolin (mg) | - | 19 |
8 | - | - | 3 | 7 | 162 | 199 | 48.3 |
Apigenin (mg) | - | 21 |
1 | - | - | 3 | 7 | 162 | 194 | 47.1 |
Flavanones (mg) | 45.6 | |||||||||
Hesperetin (mg) | - | 19 |
8 | - | - | 3 | 7 | 162 | 199 | 48.3 |
Naringenin (mg) | - | 21 |
1 | - | - | 3 | 7 | 162 | 194 | 47.1 |
Eriodictyol (mg) | - | 1 |
5 | - | - | - | 3 | 162 | 171 | 41.5 |
Flavan-3-ols (mg) | 75.5 | |||||||||
Catechin (mg) | - | 36 |
6 | - | 2 | 5 | 19 | 161 | 229 | 55.6 |
Epicatechin (mg) | - | 37 |
6 | - | 2 | 9 | 18 | 161 | 233 | 56.6 |
Epigallocatechin (mg) | - | 33 |
4 | - | 3 | 5 | 20 | 161 | 226 | 54.9 |
Epicatechin 3-gallate (mg) | - | 33 |
4 | - | 3 | 4 | 20 | 161 | 225 | 54.6 |
Epigallocatechin 3-gallate (mg) | - | 33 |
4 | - | 3 | 5 | 18 | 161 | 224 | 54.4 |
Gallocatechin (mg) |
- | 33 | 4 | - | 3 | 5 | 20 | 161 | 226 | 54.9 |
Theaflavin (mg) | - | 1 |
- | - | - | - | - | 411 | 412 | 100 |
Thearubigin (mg) | - | 1 |
- | - | - | - | - | 411 | 412 | 100 |
Theaflavin 3-gallate (mg) | - | 1 |
- | - | - | - | - | 411 | 412 | 100 |
Theaflavin 3´-gallate (mg) | - | 1 |
- | - | - | - | - | 411 | 412 | 100 |
Theaflavin 3,3´-digallate (mg) | - | 1 |
- | - | - | - | - | 411 | 412 | 100 |
Anthocyanins (mg) | 71.4 | |||||||||
Cyanidin (mg) | - | 21 |
4 | - | - | 3 | 7 | 264 | 299 | 72.6 |
Delphinidin (mg) | - | 16 |
2 | - | - | 4 | 6 | 267 | 295 | 71.6 |
Malvidin (mg) | - | 14 |
2 | - | - | 4 | 6 | 267 | 293 | 71.1 |
Pelargonidin (mg) | - | 17 |
- | - | - | 3 | 6 | 267 | 293 | 71.1 |
Peonidin (mg) | - | 15 |
2 | - | - | 3 | 6 | 267 | 293 | 71.1 |
Petunidin (mg) | - | 14 |
2 | - | - | 4 | 6 | 267 | 293 | 71.1 |
Isoflavones (mg) | 60.9 | |||||||||
Daidzein (mg) | - | 76 |
1 | - | 9 | 25 | 28 | 154 | 293 | 71.1 |
Genistein (mg) | - | 76 |
1 | - | 9 | 25 | 28 | 154 | 293 | 71.1 |
Glycitein (mg) | - | 34 |
1 | - | 6 | 17 | 9 | 155 | 222 | 53.9 |
Biochanin (mg) | - | 10 |
- | - | 7 | 14 | 3 | 161 | 195 | 47.3 |
Formononetin (mg) |
- | 24 | - | - | 8 | 17 | 10 | 159 | 218 | 52.9 |
Proanthocyanidins (mg) | 63.1 | |||||||||
Dimers (mg) | - | 52 |
5 | - | 6 | 24 | 21 | 161 | 269 | 65.3 |
Trimers (mg) | - | 50 |
4 | - | 7 | 24 | 20 | 161 | 266 | 64.6 |
4-6 monomers (mg) |
- | 45 |
2 | - | 6 | 23 | 20 | 161 | 257 | 62.4 |
7-10 monomers (mg) |
- | 45 |
2 | - | 5 | 23 | 20 | 161 | 256 | 62.1 |
Polymers (mg) |
- | 43 |
2 | - | 5 | 23 | 18 | 161 | 252 | 61.2 |
Component of antioxidant database | Total | Unadjusted daily intake (mean±SD) |
Age-adjusted daily intake average (mean±SE) |
||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Men | Women | Men | Women | ||
Total (n) | 195,961 | 69,090 | 126,871 | 69,090 | 126,871 |
Total energy intake (kcal/day) | 1,678±516 | 1,779±2 | 1,624±1 | 1,787±2 | 1,619±1 |
dTAC (mg VCE/day) | 392±445 | 380±2 | 398±1 | 385±2 | 396±1 |
Five classes of antioxidants | |||||
Retinol (μg/day) | 91.3±86.2 | 88.6±0.3 | 92.9±0.2 | 89.8±0.3 | 92.2±0.2 |
Carotenoids (mg/day) | 8.34±7.50 | 7.48±0.03 | 8.8±0.02 | 7.51±0.03 | 8.79±0.02 |
Alpha-carotene (μg/day) | 360±563 | 318±2 | 382±2 | 320±2 | 381±2 |
Beta-carotene (μg/day) | 2,105±1,644 | 2,033±6 | 2,144±5 | 2,041±6 | 2,139±5 |
Lycopene (μg/day) | 3,461±5,171 | 2,912±20 | 3,760±15 | 2,921±20 | 3,755±15 |
Beta cryptoxanthin (μg/day) | 395±467 | 329±2 | 431±1 | 330±2 | 430±1 |
Lutein and zeaxanthin (μg/day) | 2,016±2,008 | 1,887±8 | 2,086±6 | 1,899±8 | 2,080±6 |
Vitamin C (mg/day) | 59.3±42.4 | 52.6±0.2 | 62.9±0.1 | 53.0±0.2 | 62.7±0.1 |
Vitamin E (mg/day) | 5.49±3.70 | 5.65±0.01 | 5.40±0.01 | 5.70±0.01 | 5.37±0.01 |
Alpha-tocopherol (mg/day) | 1.92±1.22 | 2.02±0.00 | 1.87±0.00 | 2.05±0.00 | 1.86±0.00 |
Beta-tocopherol (mg/day) | 0.09±0.08 | 0.10±0.00 | 0.08±0.00 | 0.11±0.00 | 0.08±0.00 |
Gamma-tocopherol (mg/day) | 2.51±1.95 | 2.54±0.01 | 2.49±0.01 | 2.55±0.01 | 2.48±0.01 |
Delta-tocopherol (mg/day) | 0.97±0.85 | 0.99±0.00 | 0.96±0.00 | 1.00±0.00 | 0.96±0.00 |
Total flavonoids (mg/day) | 228±224 | 213±1 | 237±1 | 215±1 | 236±1 |
Seven subclasses of flavonoids | |||||
Flavonols (mg/day) | 22.1±18.5 | 21.6±0.1 | 22.3±0.1 | 21.8±0.1 | 22.2±0.1 |
Quercetin (mg/day) | 14.0±13.1 | 13.0±0.1 | 14.5±0.0 | 13.1±0.1 | 14.4±0.0 |
Kaempferol (mg/day) | 5.86±5.78 | 6.29±0.02 | 5.63±0.02 | 6.32±0.02 | 5.62±0.02 |
Myricetin (mg/day) | 1.40±1.40 | 1.46±0.01 | 1.37±0.00 | 1.48±0.01 | 1.36±0.00 |
Isorhamnetin (mg/day) | 0.83±0.88 | 0.85±0.00 | 0.81±0.00 | 0.85±0.00 | 0.81±0.00 |
Flavones (mg/day) | 2.00±1.49 | 1.85±0.01 | 2.09±0.00 | 1.87±0.01 | 2.08±0.00 |
Luteolin (mg/day) | 1.16±0.83 | 1.12±0.00 | 1.18±0.00 | 1.12±0.00 | 1.18±0.00 |
Apigenin (mg/day) | 0.85±0.92 | 0.74±0.00 | 0.91±0.00 | 0.75±0.00 | 0.90±0.00 |
Flavanones (mg/day) | 9.74±13.30 | 7.70±0.05 | 10.9±0.00 | 7.83±0.05 | 10.8±0.00 |
Hesperetin (mg/day) | 4.43±7.51 | 3.61±0.03 | 4.88±0.02 | 3.68±0.03 | 4.84±0.02 |
Naringenin (mg/day) | 5.29±6.84 | 4.07±0.03 | 5.95±0.02 | 4.13±0.03 | 5.91±0.02 |
Eriodictyol (mg/day) | 0.02±0.04 | 0.02±0.00 | 0.03±0.00 | 0.02±0.00 | 0.03±0.00 |
Flavan-3-ols (mg/day) | 85.1±161.00 | 87.9±1.00 | 83.5±0.00 | 89.6±1.00 | 82.6±0.00 |
Catechin (mg/day) | 6.11±6.99 | 5.54±0.03 | 6.42±0.02 | 5.62±0.03 | 6.37±0.02 |
Epicatechin (mg/day) | 9.94±11.73 | 9.60±0.04 | 10.20±0.00 | 9.70±0.04 | 10.10±0.00 |
Epigallocatechin (mg/day) | 17.3±35.2 | 18.2±0.1 | 16.8±0.1 | 18.6±0.1 | 16.6±0.1 |
Epicatechin 3-gallate (mg/day) | 10.5±21.6 | 11.0±0.1 | 10.2±0.1 | 11.2±0.1 | 10.1±0.1 |
Epigallocatechin 3-gallate (mg/day) | 39.7±84.4 | 42.0±0.3 | 38.4±0.2 | 42.8±0.3 | 38.0±0.2 |
Gallocatechin (mg/day) | 0.90±1.85 | 0.94±0.01 | 0.87±0.01 | 0.96±0.01 | 0.86±0.01 |
Theaflavin (mg/day) | 0.03±0.06 | 0.03±0.00 | 0.03±0.00 | 0.03±0.00 | 0.03±0.00 |
Thearubigin (mg/day) | 0.61±1.30 | 0.64±0.00 | 0.59±0.00 | 0.66±0.00 | 0.58±0.00 |
Theaflavin 3-gallate (mg/day) |
0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Theaflavin 3´-gallate (mg/day) | 0.01±0.01 | 0.01±0.00 | 0.01±0.00 | 0.01±0.00 | 0.01±0.00 |
Theaflavin 3,3´-digallate (mg/day) | 0.01±0.01 | 0.01±0.00 | 0.01±0.00 | 0.01±0.00 | 0.01±0.00 |
Anthocyanins (mg/day) | 10.50±12.70 | 8.46±0.05 | 11.60±0.00 | 8.55±0.05 | 11.50±0.00 |
Cyanidin (mg/day) | 2.09±2.39 | 1.72±0.01 | 2.29±0.01 | 1.73±0.01 | 2.29±0.01 |
Delphinidin (mg/day) | 0.33±0.52 | 0.26±0.00 | 0.37±0.00 | 0.27±0.00 | 0.37±0.00 |
Malvidin (mg/day) | 4.58±7.70 | 3.59±0.03 | 5.12±0.02 | 3.63±0.03 | 5.10±0.02 |
Pelargonidin (mg/day) | 2.67±3.61 | 2.27±0.01 | 2.88±0.01 | 2.29±0.01 | 2.87±0.01 |
Peonidin (mg/day) | 0.54±0.88 | 0.43±0.00 | 0.61±0.00 | 0.43±0.00 | 0.61±0.00 |
Petunidin (mg/day) | 0.25±0.41 | 0.20±0.00 | 0.28±0.00 | 0.20±0.00 | 0.28±0.00 |
Isoflavones (mg/day) | 20.4±17.9 | 20.3±0.1 | 20.5±0.1 | 20.2±0.1 | 20.5±0.1 |
Daidzein (mg/day) | 8.58±7.49 | 8.53±0.03 | 8.61±0.02 | 8.52±0.03 | 8.62±0.02 |
Genistein (mg/day) | 9.80±8.73 | 9.69±0.03 | 9.86±0.02 | 9.68±0.03 | 9.87±0.02 |
Glycitein (mg/day) | 1.89±1.71 | 1.86±0.01 | 1.90±0.00 | 1.85±0.01 | 1.90±0.00 |
Biochanin (mg/day) | 0.01±0.02 | 0.01±0.00 | 0.01±0.00 | 0.01±0.00 | 0.01±0.00 |
Formononetin (mg/day) | 0.16±0.13 | 0.18±0.00 | 0.14±0.00 | 0.18±0.00 | 0.14±0.00 |
Proanthocyanidins (mg/day) | 78.6±85.2 | 65.0±0.3 | 86.1±0.2 | 65.5±0.3 | 85.8±0.2 |
Dimers (mg/day) | 12.2±12.4 | 10.5±0.1 | 13.2±0.0 | 10.6±0.1 | 13.1±0.0 |
Trimers (mg/day) | 6.57±6.02 | 5.69±0.02 | 7.04±0.02 | 5.72±0.02 | 7.03±0.02 |
4-6 monomers (mg/day) | 17.7±20.1 | 14.7±0.1 | 19.4±0.1 | 14.8±0.1 | 19.3±0.1 |
7-10 monomers (mg/day) | 13.3±17.4 | 10.7±0.1 | 14.7±0.1 | 10.8±0.1 | 14.6±0.1 |
Polymers (mg/day) | 28.9±31.5 | 23.5±0.1 | 31.8±0.1 | 23.7±0.1 | 31.7±0.1 |
Characteristics | % | dTAC (mg VCE/day) | p-value |
Five classes of antioxidants |
|||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Retinol (μg/day) | p-value |
Carotenoids (mg/day) | p-value |
Vitamin C (mg/day) | p-value |
Vitamin E (mg/day) | p-value |
Total flavonoids (mg/day) | p-value |
||||
Total (n=195,961) | |||||||||||||
Cohort study | |||||||||||||
ASAS | 3.8 | 469±5.13a | <0.001 | 83.9±0.99a | <0.001 | 7.62±0.09a | <0.001 | 53.9±0.49a | <0.001 | 6.23±0.04a | <0.001 | 261±2.58a | <0.001 |
CAVAS | 10.9 | 341±3.09b | 71.6±0.60b | 7.04±0.05b | 49.6±0.29b | 5.00±0.03b | 190±1.56b | ||||||
HEXA | 85.3 | 393±1.13c | 93.8±0.22b | 8.32±0.02c | 59.1±0.11c | 5.57±0.01c | 228±0.57c | ||||||
Gender | |||||||||||||
Men | 35.3 | 385±1.68 | <0.001 | 89.8±0.33 | <0.001 | 7.51±0.03 | <0.001 | 53.0±0.16 | <0.001 | 5.70±0.01 | <0.001 | 215±0.85 | <0.001 |
Women | 64.7 | 396±1.24 | 92.2±0.24 | 8.79±0.02 | 62.7±0.12 | 5.37±0.01 | 236±0.63 | ||||||
Age (yr) | |||||||||||||
40-49 | 34.6 | 440±1.73a | <0.001 | 102±0.34a | <0.001 | 8.27±0.03a | <0.001 | 60.8±0.16a | <0.001 | 6.02±0.01a | <0.001 | 248±0.87a | <0.001 |
50-59 | 37.5 | 399±1.67b | 91.7±0.32b | 8.47±0.03b | 59.5±0.16b | 5.55±0.01b | 232±0.84b | ||||||
60-69 | 24.2 | 328±2.04c | 78.7±0.39c | 7.80±0.03c | 53.6±0.19c | 5.02±0.02c | 196±1.03c | ||||||
70+ | 3.7 | 248±5.17d | 58.2±1.00d | 6.17±0.09d | 41.6±0.49d | 4.28±0.04d | 148±2.60d | ||||||
Higher education |
|||||||||||||
Yes | 60.8 | 424±1.34 | <0.001 | 98.6±0.26 | <0.001 | 8.68±0.02 | <0.001 | 62.1±0.13 | <0.001 | 5.84±0.01 | <0.001 | 247±0.67 | <0.001 |
No | 39.2 | 331±1.79 | 77.8±0.35 | 7.24±0.03 | 50.6±0.17 | 5.02±0.01 | 188±0.90 | ||||||
Smoking status | |||||||||||||
Never smoker | 72.1 | 398±1.62a | <0.001 | 91.4±0.31a | <0.001 | 8.40±0.03a | <0.001 | 59.4±0.15a | <0.001 | 5.52±0.01a | 0.006 | 231±0.82a | <0.001 |
Past smoker | 14.9 | 401±2.92a | 91.9±0.57a | 8.07±0.05b | 57.6±0.28b | 5.60±0.02b | 231±1.47a | ||||||
Current smoker | 13.0 | 350±3.02b | 88.4±0.58b | 7.34±0.05c | 52.4±0.29c | 5.51±0.03a | 197±1.52b | ||||||
Drinking status | |||||||||||||
Never drinker | 50.7 | 381±1.65a | <0.001 | 88.8±0.32a | <0.001 | 8.33±0.03a | <0.001 | 59.0±0.16a | <0.001 | 5.51±0.01a | <0.001 | 224±0.83a | 0.001 |
Past drinker | 4.3 | 401±4.86b | 90.8±0.94a,b | 8.27±0.08a | 59.2±0.46a | 5.73±0.04b | 234±2.45b | ||||||
Current drinker | 45.1 | 397±1.51b | 92.8±0.29b | 7.97±0.03b | 56.7±0.14b | 5.54±0.01a | 226±0.76a | ||||||
Regular exercise |
|||||||||||||
Yes | 34.3 | 448±1.74 | <0.001 | 101±0.34 | <0.001 | 9.14±0.03 | <0.001 | 64.0±0.17 | <0.001 | 5.93±0.01 | <0.001 | 260±0.88 | <0.001 |
No | 65.6 | 358±1.28 | 85.0±0.25 | 7.59±0.02 | 54.4±0.12 | 5.31±0.01 | 206±0.64 | ||||||
BMI (kg/m2) | |||||||||||||
<23 | 38.4 | 368±1.68a | <0.001 | 91.2±0.32a,b | 0.009 | 8.06±0.03a | <0.001 | 57.5±0.16a | <0.001 | 5.47±0.01a | <0.001 | 217±0.84a | <0.001 |
≥23 to <25 | 27.6 | 399±1.92b | 91.7±0.37a | 8.24±0.03b | 58.5±0.18b | 5.54±0.02b | 230±0.97b | ||||||
≥25 | 34.1 | 406±1.72c | 90.2±0.33b | 8.17±0.03b | 57.7±0.16a | 5.60±0.01c | 230±0.87b | ||||||
Waist circumference (cm) | |||||||||||||
<90 for men/85 for women | 73.1 | 386±1.22 | <0.001 | 91.6±0.24 | <0.001 | 8.17±0.02 | 0.003 | 58.3±0.12 | <0.001 | 5.52±0.01 | 0.137 | 225±0.62 | 0.577 |
≥90 for men/85 for women | 26.9 | 398±1.96 | 89.0±0.38 | 8.06±0.03 | 56.6±0.19 | 5.55±0.02 | 225±0.99 | ||||||
Menopause (for women) | |||||||||||||
Yes | 64.4 | 404±1.81 | <0.001 | 93.9±0.36 | <0.001 | 9.07±0.03 | <0.001 | 64.5±0.18 | <0.001 | 5.44±0.02 | <0.001 | 241±0.93 | <0.001 |
No | 35.6 | 387±2.69 | 90.8±0.53 | 8.32±0.05 | 60.1±0.27 | 5.32±0.02 | 229±1.38 |
Characteristics | Prevalence (%) | dTAC (mg VCE/day) | p-value |
Five classes of antioxidants |
|||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Retinol (μg/day) | p-value |
Carotenoids (mg/day) | p-value |
Vitamin C (mg/day) | p-value |
Vitamin E (mg/day) | p-value |
Total flavonoids (mg/day) | p-value |
||||
n=195,961 | |||||||||||||
Cancer | |||||||||||||
Yes | 3.2 | 429±10.1 | 0.021 | 89.0±1.99 | <0.001 | 9.12±0.18 | <0.001 | 63.2±1.01 | <0.001 | 5.71±0.08 | 0.258 | 249±5.18 | <0.001 |
No | 96.8 | 412±7.30 | 95.2±1.43 | 8.44±0.13 | 59.1±0.73 | 5.64±0.06 | 234±3.74 | ||||||
Cardiovascular disease | |||||||||||||
Yes | 4.1 | 424±10.6 | 0.450 | 89.8±2.08 | 0.004 | 8.87±0.19 | 0.216 | 61.3±1.05 | 0.665 | 5.64±0.09 | 0.314 | 242±5.41 | 0.629 |
No | 95.9 | 417±7.17 | 94.4±1.41 | 8.68±0.13 | 61.0±0.72 | 5.71±0.06 | 240±3.67 | ||||||
Diabetes mellitus | |||||||||||||
Yes | 8.6 | 419±9.22 | 0.580 | 90.5±1.81 | 0.007 | 8.76±0.16 | 0.762 | 59.2±0.92 | <0.001 | 5.66±0.08 | 0.739 | 236±4.73 | 0.001 |
No | 91.4 | 422±7.82 | 93.6±1.54 | 8.79±0.14 | 63.0±0.78 | 5.68±0.06 | 246±4.00 | ||||||
Hypertension | |||||||||||||
Yes | 29.8 | 420±8.30 | 0.728 | 90.1±1.63 | <0.001 | 8.74±0.15 | 0.252 | 60.8±0.83 | 0.109 | 5.67±0.07 | 0.991 | 240±4.25 | 0.313 |
No | 70.2 | 421±8.14 | 94.0±1.60 | 8.81±0.14 | 61.4±0.81 | 5.67±0.07 | 242±4.17 | ||||||
Metabolic syndrome | |||||||||||||
Yes | 23.9 | 410±8.37 | <0.001 | 88.2±1.65 | <0.001 | 8.61±0.15 | <0.001 | 60.1±0.84 | <0.001 | 5.59±0.07 | <0.001 | 235±4.29 | <0.001 |
No | 76.1 | 430±8.21 | 96.0±1.61 | 8.94±0.15 | 62.2±0.82 | 5.75±0.07 | 247±4.21 |
Values are presented as total number of components included in the database, with the number of components used to estimate dietary total antioxidant capacity in parentheses. Not included in the estimation of dietary total antioxidant capacity.
KMFDS, Food and Nutrient Database of the Korea Ministry of Food and Drug Safety (accessed on July 17, 2020); USDA, United States Department of Agriculture; INRA, Phenol-Explorer 3.6 of Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (accessed on May 25, 2020); JMEXT, Standard Tables of Food Composition in Japan (2015; 7th edition) of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology Japan (accessed on May 6, 2020). These components (retinol; gallocatechin from the flavan-3-ols; formononetin from the isoflavones; and 4-6 monomers, 7-10 monomers, and polymers from the proanthocyanidins) were not included in the estimation of dietary total antioxidant capacity. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, release 28 (2015). USDA Database for the Flavonoid Content of Selected Foods, release 3.3 (2018). USDA Database for the Isoflavone Content of Selected Foods, release 2.1. USDA Database for the Proanthocyanidin Content of Selected Foods, release 2.1 (accessed on May 25, 2020).
dTAC, dietary total antioxidant capacity; KoGES, Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study; VCE, vitamin C equivalent. All p-values for comparisons by gender, obtained via Student t-test for unadjusted consumption and the general linear model for age-adjusted consumption, were <0.001. The content was zero for all food items in the food frequency questionnaire.
Values are presented as mean±standard error; Mean values with different superscripts (a, b, c) within a row represent significant differences among the exposure groups on the Tukey multiple comparison test. dTAC, dietary total antioxidant capacity; BMI, body mass index; ASAS, Ansan and Ansung study; HEXA, Health Examinee study; CAVAS, Cardiovascular Disease Association Study. p-values were obtained with the general linear model after adjusting for age and gender; The age-adjusted average for gender and gender-adjusted average for age are presented. A “yes” response was defined as ≥12 years of schooling. A “yes” response was defined as exercising ≥3 times/wk for ≥30 min/session, while a “no” response indicated exercising <3 times/wk and/or <30 min/session.
Values are presented as mean±standard error. dTAC, dietary total antioxidant capacity. p-values were obtained with the general linear model after adjusting for gender, age (years), education level (≥12 years of schooling or less), smoking status (never/past/current), drinking status (never/past/current), regular exercise (≥3 times/wk and ≥30 min/session or not), body mass index (kg/m2), menopausal status (yes or no, for women only), and other diseases.