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1Department of Sociology, Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea
2Department of Preventive and Occupational & Environmental Medicine, Pusan National University Medical College, Yangsan, Korea
3Office of Public Healthcare Service, Pusan National University Yangsan Hospital, Yangsan, Korea
4Department of Preventive Medicine, Konyang University College of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea
5Center for Public Health Data Analytics, National Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
© 2023, Korean Society of Epidemiology
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare for this study.
FUNDING
This study utilized the National Health Information Database (NHIS-2022-1-595) of the National Health Insurance Service. The study was supported and funded by the Ministry of Health and Welfare (MOHW) and the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) [grant No. NRF2021R1F1A1051021].
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Conceptualization: Kim MH, Choi H, Choi MH, Jeon J, Park J. Data curation: Jeon J, Park J. Formal analysis: Jeon J, Park J. Funding acquisition: Choi MH, Choi H. Writing – original draft: Jeon J, Park J. Writing – review & editing: Kim MH, Choi H, Choi MH.
Characteristics | No. of total sample (n=5,196,467) | p-value2 | No. of confirmed COVID-19 cases (n=1,641,264) | p-value2 | No. of individuals with at least 1 dose of vaccination (n=4,368,149) | p-value2 | No. of COVID-19 cases with hospitalization (n=21,867) | p-value2 | No. of severe COVID-19 cases (n=1,329) | p-value2 | No. of deaths caused by COVID-19 (n=3,819) | p-value2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gender | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.001 | <0.001 | 0.756 | |||||||
Men | 2,598,923 (50.0) | 769,898 (46.9) | 2,181,551 (49.9) | 10,013 (45.8) | 746 (56.1) | 1,801 (47.2) | |||||||
Women | 2,597,544 (50.0) | 871,366 (53.1) | 2,186,598 (50.1) | 11,854 (54.2) | 583 (43.9) | 2,018 (52.8) | |||||||
Age (yr) | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||||
<10 | 362,456 (7.0) | 210,172 (12.8) | 0 (0.0) | 1,231 (5.6) | 2 (0.1) | 0 (0.0) | |||||||
10-19 | 475,731 (9.1) | 209,396 (12.8) | 374,187 (8.6) | 1,050 (4.8) | 3 (0.2) | 1 (0.0) | |||||||
20-29 | 687,733 (13.2) | 242,769 (14.8) | 632,708 (14.5) | 1,565 (7.2) | 16 (1.2) | 8 (0.2) | |||||||
30-39 | 701,092 (13.5) | 247,690 (15.1) | 618,659 (14.2) | 2,020 (9.2) | 48 (3.6) | 22 (0.6) | |||||||
40-49 | 833,784 (16.0) | 250,481 (15.3) | 768,622 (17.6) | 2,340 (10.7) | 87 (6.5) | 54 (1.4) | |||||||
50-59 | 875,295 (16.8) | 204,566 (12.5) | 825,722 (18.9) | 2,883 (13.2) | 167 (12.6) | 160 (4.2) | |||||||
60-69 | 679,421 (13.1) | 158,073 (9.6) | 639,899 (14.6) | 3,705 (16.9) | 306 (23.0) | 435 (11.4) | |||||||
70-79 | 371,603 (7.1) | 76,629 (4.7) | 342,839 (7.8) | 3,218 (14.7) | 321 (24.1) | 887 (23.2) | |||||||
≥80 | 209,352 (4.0) | 41,488 (2.5) | 165,513 (3.8) | 3,855 (17.6) | 379 (28.5) | 2,252 (59.0) | |||||||
Household income | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||||
Q5 (highest) | 1,430,114 (27.5) | 463,701 (28.2) | 1,197,852 (27.4) | 5,933 (27.1) | 376 (28.3) | 1,108 (29.0) | |||||||
Q4 | 1,109,570 (21.3) | 373,832 (22.8) | 903,043 (20.7) | 4,200 (19.2) | 243 (18.3) | 617 (16.2) | |||||||
Q3 | 918,277 (17.7) | 287,723 (17.5) | 779,009 (17.8) | 3,508 (16.0) | 184 (13.8) | 464 (12.1) | |||||||
Q2 | 727,554 (14.0) | 225,780 (13.8) | 636,078 (14.6) | 2,749 (12.6) | 184 (13.8) | 385 (10.1) | |||||||
Q1 (lowest) | 861,245 (16.6) | 248,817 (15.2) | 730,182 (16.7) | 3,623 (16.6) | 211 (15.9) | 656 (17.2) | |||||||
Q0 (Medical Aid) | 149,707 (2.9) | 41,411 (2.5) | 121,985 (2.8) | 1,854 (8.5) | 131 (9.9) | 589 (15.4) | |||||||
Type of medical insurance | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||||
Medical Aid | 149,707 (2.9) | 41,411 (2.5) | 121,985 (2.8) | 1,854 (8.5) | 131 (9.9) | 589 (15.4) | |||||||
Employment-based health insurance | 3,624,070 (69.7) | 1,244,087 (75.8) | 3,075,080 (70.4) | 13,781 (63.0) | 724 (54.5) | 2,074 (54.3) | |||||||
Area-based health insurance | 1,422,690 (27.4) | 355,766 (21.9) | 1,171,084 (26.8) | 6,232 (28.5) | 474 (35.7) | 1,156 (30.3) | |||||||
Residential area | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||||
Metropolitan | 2,187,109 (42.1) | 703,694 (42.9) | 1,842,838 (42.2) | 9,745 (44.6) | 667 (50.2) | 1,565 (41.0) | |||||||
Urban | 2,571,761 (49.5) | 818,923 (49.9) | 2,151,011 (49.2) | 10,064 (46.0) | 556 (41.8) | 1,645 (43.1) | |||||||
Rural | 437,597 (8.4) | 118,647 (7.2) | 374,300 (8.6) | 2,058 (9.4) | 106 (8.0) | 609 (15.9) | |||||||
Disability | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||||
Disabled | 272,053 (5.2) | 67,121 (4.1) | 234,860 (5.4) | 3,478 (15.9) | 304 (22.9) | 1,183 (31.0) | |||||||
Non-disabled | 4,924,414 (94.8) | 1,574,143 (95.9) | 4,133,289 (94.6) | 18,389 (84.1) | 1,025 (77.1) | 2,636 (69.0) |
Characteristics | Infection rate (%) | Vaccination rate (%) | Mortality rate (per 100,000) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Total rate (95% CI) | 31.81 (31.76, 31.86) | 83.44 (83.37, 83.52) | 10.44 (9.54, 11.34) | |
Gender | ||||
Men | 29.54 (29.48, 29.61) | 83.37 (83.26, 83.48) | 13.35 (11.74, 14.97) | |
Women | 34.15 (34.07, 34.22) | 83.49 (83.37, 83.60) | 8.14 (7.12, 9.16) | |
(i) Absolute diff.2 | 4.60 | 0.12 | -5.21 | |
(ii) Relative diff.2 | 1.16 | 1.00 | 0.61 | |
Household income | ||||
Q5 (highest) | 32.77 (32.68, 32.87) | 84.28 (84.13, 84.44) | 7.90 (6.56, 9.24) | |
Q4 | 32.50 (32.39, 32.61) | 83.62 (83.44, 83.79) | 9.17 (7.15, 11.19) | |
Q3 | 31.27 (31.15, 31.39) | 83.54 (83.35, 83.73) | 9.32 (7.00, 11.63) | |
Q2 | 31.65 (31.51, 31.78) | 83.91 (83.70, 84.13) | 11.77 (8.69, 14.85) | |
Q1 (lowest) | 29.92 (29.80, 30.04) | 81.86 (81.67, 82.05) | 12.68 (10.16, 15.20) | |
Q0 (Medical-Aid) | 31.74 (31.38, 32.11) | 79.41 (78.86, 79.95) | 28.55 (21.61, 35.49) | |
(i) SII (95% CI) | -2.271 (-4.044, -0.498) | -4.519 (-7.403, -1.634) | 17.590 (4.388, 30.792) | |
(ii) RII (95% CI) | 0.931 (0.623, 1.391) | 0.949 (0.841, 1.071) | 4.624 (2.036, 10.506) | |
Disability | ||||
Disabled | 30.89 (30.54, 31.25) | 80.96 (80.49, 81.42) | 21.98 (17.84, 26.12) | |
Non-disabled | 31.80 (31.75, 31.85) | 83.61 (83.53, 83.69) | 9.01 (8.10, 9.93) | |
(i) Absolute diff.2 | -0.90 | -2.66 | 12.96 | |
(ii) Relative diff.2 | 0.97 | 0.97 | 2.44 |
COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; CI, confidence interval; Q, quartile; SII, slope index of inequality; RII, relative index of inequality; diff., difference; MDIS, Microdata Integrated Service of Statistics Korea; KNHIS, Korean National Health Insurance Service.
1 Data period used in the analysis of infection and vaccination rate: October 8, 2020 to April 30, 2022; Mortality rate was estimated using MDIS cause-of-death data with a denominator of the whole population, including non-infected individuals; Since the available periods of KNHIS and MDIS data differed, an adjustment was made for the analyzed period; Finally, data from January 2021 to December 2021 were used to calculate mortality rate.
2 Reference group for absolute and relative diff.: men (gender), non-disabled (disability).
Characteristics |
% of COVID-19 confirmed cases |
|||
---|---|---|---|---|
Hospitalization rate | Severe case rate | Fatality rate | ||
Total rate (95% CI) | 1.63 (1.61, 1.65) | 0.11 (0.11, 0.12) | 0.34 (0.33, 0.36) | |
Gender | ||||
Men | 1.72 (1.68, 1.75) | 0.15 (0.14, 0.17) | 0.43 (0.41, 0.45) | |
Women | 1.55 (1.52, 1.58) | 0.08 (0.08, 0.09) | 0.28 (0.27, 0.30) | |
(i) Absolute diff.2 | -0.17 | -0.07 | -0.15 | |
(ii) Relative diff.2 | 0.90 | 0.54 | 0.65 | |
Household income | ||||
Q5 (highest) | 1.46 (1.42, 1.50) | 0.10 (0.09, 0.11) | 0.28 (0.26, 0.30) | |
Q4 | 1.52 (1.47, 1.57) | 0.11 (0.10, 0.12) | 0.34 (0.31, 0.36) | |
Q3 | 1.64 (1.58, 1.70) | 0.11 (0.09, 0.13) | 0.33 (0.30, 0.36) | |
Q2 | 1.60 (1.54, 1.67) | 0.14 (0.11, 0.16) | 0.35 (0.32, 0.39) | |
Q1 (lowest) | 1.69 (1.63, 1.75) | 0.11 (0.09, 0.12) | 0.36 (0.33, 0.39) | |
Q0 (Medical-Aid) | 3.82 (3.62, 4.02) | 0.21 (0.17, 0.25) | 0.88 (0.80, 0.96) | |
(i) SII (95% CI) | 1.778 (-0.029, 3.584) | 0.089 (0.008, 0.170) | 0.451 (0.018, 0.884) | |
(ii) RII (95% CI) | 2.672 (0.321, 22.225) | 2.064 (0.001, 6,650.850) | 3.228 (0.030, 347.999) | |
Disability | ||||
Disabled | 3.42 (3.27, 3.57) | 0.23 (0.20, 0.27) | 0.71 (0.66, 0.76) | |
Non-disabled | 1.51 (1.48, 1.53) | 0.10 (0.10, 0.11) | 0.30 (0.29, 0.31) | |
(i) Absolute diff.2 | 1.91 | 0.13 | 0.41 | |
(ii) Relative diff.2 | 2.27 | 2.29 | 2.37 |
COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; CI, confidence interval; Q, quartile; SII, slope index of inequality; RII, relative index of inequality; diff., difference.
1 Data period used in the analysis: October 8, 2020 to April 30, 2022.
2 Reference group for absolute and relative diff.: men (gender), non-disabled (disability).
Characteristics | No. of total sample (n=5,196,467) | p-value |
No. of confirmed COVID-19 cases (n=1,641,264) | p-value |
No. of individuals with at least 1 dose of vaccination (n=4,368,149) | p-value |
No. of COVID-19 cases with hospitalization (n=21,867) | p-value |
No. of severe COVID-19 cases (n=1,329) | p-value |
No. of deaths caused by COVID-19 (n=3,819) | p-value |
|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gender | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.001 | <0.001 | 0.756 | |||||||
Men | 2,598,923 (50.0) | 769,898 (46.9) | 2,181,551 (49.9) | 10,013 (45.8) | 746 (56.1) | 1,801 (47.2) | |||||||
Women | 2,597,544 (50.0) | 871,366 (53.1) | 2,186,598 (50.1) | 11,854 (54.2) | 583 (43.9) | 2,018 (52.8) | |||||||
Age (yr) | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||||
<10 | 362,456 (7.0) | 210,172 (12.8) | 0 (0.0) | 1,231 (5.6) | 2 (0.1) | 0 (0.0) | |||||||
10-19 | 475,731 (9.1) | 209,396 (12.8) | 374,187 (8.6) | 1,050 (4.8) | 3 (0.2) | 1 (0.0) | |||||||
20-29 | 687,733 (13.2) | 242,769 (14.8) | 632,708 (14.5) | 1,565 (7.2) | 16 (1.2) | 8 (0.2) | |||||||
30-39 | 701,092 (13.5) | 247,690 (15.1) | 618,659 (14.2) | 2,020 (9.2) | 48 (3.6) | 22 (0.6) | |||||||
40-49 | 833,784 (16.0) | 250,481 (15.3) | 768,622 (17.6) | 2,340 (10.7) | 87 (6.5) | 54 (1.4) | |||||||
50-59 | 875,295 (16.8) | 204,566 (12.5) | 825,722 (18.9) | 2,883 (13.2) | 167 (12.6) | 160 (4.2) | |||||||
60-69 | 679,421 (13.1) | 158,073 (9.6) | 639,899 (14.6) | 3,705 (16.9) | 306 (23.0) | 435 (11.4) | |||||||
70-79 | 371,603 (7.1) | 76,629 (4.7) | 342,839 (7.8) | 3,218 (14.7) | 321 (24.1) | 887 (23.2) | |||||||
≥80 | 209,352 (4.0) | 41,488 (2.5) | 165,513 (3.8) | 3,855 (17.6) | 379 (28.5) | 2,252 (59.0) | |||||||
Household income | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||||
Q5 (highest) | 1,430,114 (27.5) | 463,701 (28.2) | 1,197,852 (27.4) | 5,933 (27.1) | 376 (28.3) | 1,108 (29.0) | |||||||
Q4 | 1,109,570 (21.3) | 373,832 (22.8) | 903,043 (20.7) | 4,200 (19.2) | 243 (18.3) | 617 (16.2) | |||||||
Q3 | 918,277 (17.7) | 287,723 (17.5) | 779,009 (17.8) | 3,508 (16.0) | 184 (13.8) | 464 (12.1) | |||||||
Q2 | 727,554 (14.0) | 225,780 (13.8) | 636,078 (14.6) | 2,749 (12.6) | 184 (13.8) | 385 (10.1) | |||||||
Q1 (lowest) | 861,245 (16.6) | 248,817 (15.2) | 730,182 (16.7) | 3,623 (16.6) | 211 (15.9) | 656 (17.2) | |||||||
Q0 (Medical Aid) | 149,707 (2.9) | 41,411 (2.5) | 121,985 (2.8) | 1,854 (8.5) | 131 (9.9) | 589 (15.4) | |||||||
Type of medical insurance | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||||
Medical Aid | 149,707 (2.9) | 41,411 (2.5) | 121,985 (2.8) | 1,854 (8.5) | 131 (9.9) | 589 (15.4) | |||||||
Employment-based health insurance | 3,624,070 (69.7) | 1,244,087 (75.8) | 3,075,080 (70.4) | 13,781 (63.0) | 724 (54.5) | 2,074 (54.3) | |||||||
Area-based health insurance | 1,422,690 (27.4) | 355,766 (21.9) | 1,171,084 (26.8) | 6,232 (28.5) | 474 (35.7) | 1,156 (30.3) | |||||||
Residential area | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||||
Metropolitan | 2,187,109 (42.1) | 703,694 (42.9) | 1,842,838 (42.2) | 9,745 (44.6) | 667 (50.2) | 1,565 (41.0) | |||||||
Urban | 2,571,761 (49.5) | 818,923 (49.9) | 2,151,011 (49.2) | 10,064 (46.0) | 556 (41.8) | 1,645 (43.1) | |||||||
Rural | 437,597 (8.4) | 118,647 (7.2) | 374,300 (8.6) | 2,058 (9.4) | 106 (8.0) | 609 (15.9) | |||||||
Disability | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||||
Disabled | 272,053 (5.2) | 67,121 (4.1) | 234,860 (5.4) | 3,478 (15.9) | 304 (22.9) | 1,183 (31.0) | |||||||
Non-disabled | 4,924,414 (94.8) | 1,574,143 (95.9) | 4,133,289 (94.6) | 18,389 (84.1) | 1,025 (77.1) | 2,636 (69.0) |
Characteristics | Infection rate (%) | Vaccination rate (%) | Mortality rate (per 100,000) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Total rate (95% CI) | 31.81 (31.76, 31.86) | 83.44 (83.37, 83.52) | 10.44 (9.54, 11.34) | |
Gender | ||||
Men | 29.54 (29.48, 29.61) | 83.37 (83.26, 83.48) | 13.35 (11.74, 14.97) | |
Women | 34.15 (34.07, 34.22) | 83.49 (83.37, 83.60) | 8.14 (7.12, 9.16) | |
(i) Absolute diff. |
4.60 | 0.12 | -5.21 | |
(ii) Relative diff. |
1.16 | 1.00 | 0.61 | |
Household income | ||||
Q5 (highest) | 32.77 (32.68, 32.87) | 84.28 (84.13, 84.44) | 7.90 (6.56, 9.24) | |
Q4 | 32.50 (32.39, 32.61) | 83.62 (83.44, 83.79) | 9.17 (7.15, 11.19) | |
Q3 | 31.27 (31.15, 31.39) | 83.54 (83.35, 83.73) | 9.32 (7.00, 11.63) | |
Q2 | 31.65 (31.51, 31.78) | 83.91 (83.70, 84.13) | 11.77 (8.69, 14.85) | |
Q1 (lowest) | 29.92 (29.80, 30.04) | 81.86 (81.67, 82.05) | 12.68 (10.16, 15.20) | |
Q0 (Medical-Aid) | 31.74 (31.38, 32.11) | 79.41 (78.86, 79.95) | 28.55 (21.61, 35.49) | |
(i) SII (95% CI) | -2.271 (-4.044, -0.498) | -4.519 (-7.403, -1.634) | 17.590 (4.388, 30.792) | |
(ii) RII (95% CI) | 0.931 (0.623, 1.391) | 0.949 (0.841, 1.071) | 4.624 (2.036, 10.506) | |
Disability | ||||
Disabled | 30.89 (30.54, 31.25) | 80.96 (80.49, 81.42) | 21.98 (17.84, 26.12) | |
Non-disabled | 31.80 (31.75, 31.85) | 83.61 (83.53, 83.69) | 9.01 (8.10, 9.93) | |
(i) Absolute diff. |
-0.90 | -2.66 | 12.96 | |
(ii) Relative diff. |
0.97 | 0.97 | 2.44 |
Characteristics | % of COVID-19 confirmed cases |
|||
---|---|---|---|---|
Hospitalization rate | Severe case rate | Fatality rate | ||
Total rate (95% CI) | 1.63 (1.61, 1.65) | 0.11 (0.11, 0.12) | 0.34 (0.33, 0.36) | |
Gender | ||||
Men | 1.72 (1.68, 1.75) | 0.15 (0.14, 0.17) | 0.43 (0.41, 0.45) | |
Women | 1.55 (1.52, 1.58) | 0.08 (0.08, 0.09) | 0.28 (0.27, 0.30) | |
(i) Absolute diff. |
-0.17 | -0.07 | -0.15 | |
(ii) Relative diff. |
0.90 | 0.54 | 0.65 | |
Household income | ||||
Q5 (highest) | 1.46 (1.42, 1.50) | 0.10 (0.09, 0.11) | 0.28 (0.26, 0.30) | |
Q4 | 1.52 (1.47, 1.57) | 0.11 (0.10, 0.12) | 0.34 (0.31, 0.36) | |
Q3 | 1.64 (1.58, 1.70) | 0.11 (0.09, 0.13) | 0.33 (0.30, 0.36) | |
Q2 | 1.60 (1.54, 1.67) | 0.14 (0.11, 0.16) | 0.35 (0.32, 0.39) | |
Q1 (lowest) | 1.69 (1.63, 1.75) | 0.11 (0.09, 0.12) | 0.36 (0.33, 0.39) | |
Q0 (Medical-Aid) | 3.82 (3.62, 4.02) | 0.21 (0.17, 0.25) | 0.88 (0.80, 0.96) | |
(i) SII (95% CI) | 1.778 (-0.029, 3.584) | 0.089 (0.008, 0.170) | 0.451 (0.018, 0.884) | |
(ii) RII (95% CI) | 2.672 (0.321, 22.225) | 2.064 (0.001, 6,650.850) | 3.228 (0.030, 347.999) | |
Disability | ||||
Disabled | 3.42 (3.27, 3.57) | 0.23 (0.20, 0.27) | 0.71 (0.66, 0.76) | |
Non-disabled | 1.51 (1.48, 1.53) | 0.10 (0.10, 0.11) | 0.30 (0.29, 0.31) | |
(i) Absolute diff. |
1.91 | 0.13 | 0.41 | |
(ii) Relative diff. |
2.27 | 2.29 | 2.37 |
Values are presented as number (%). COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; Q, quartile. Data period used in analysis: October 8, 2020 to April 30, 2022. Using the chi-square test.
COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; CI, confidence interval; Q, quartile; SII, slope index of inequality; RII, relative index of inequality; diff., difference; MDIS, Microdata Integrated Service of Statistics Korea; KNHIS, Korean National Health Insurance Service. Data period used in the analysis of infection and vaccination rate: October 8, 2020 to April 30, 2022; Mortality rate was estimated using MDIS cause-of-death data with a denominator of the whole population, including non-infected individuals; Since the available periods of KNHIS and MDIS data differed, an adjustment was made for the analyzed period; Finally, data from January 2021 to December 2021 were used to calculate mortality rate. Reference group for absolute and relative diff.: men (gender), non-disabled (disability).
COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; CI, confidence interval; Q, quartile; SII, slope index of inequality; RII, relative index of inequality; diff., difference. Data period used in the analysis: October 8, 2020 to April 30, 2022. Reference group for absolute and relative diff.: men (gender), non-disabled (disability).