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1Ulsan Emergency Medical Support Center, National Emergency Medical Center, Ulsan, Korea
2Department of Preventive Medicine, Inje University College of Medicine, Busan, Korea
©2015, Korean Society of Epidemiology
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Characteristic | Classification | n (%) |
Happiness index |
||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean±SD | Correlation coefficient | p-value | |||
Sex | Male | 7,192 (44.2) | 64.6±13.0 | <0.0011 | |
Female | 9,078 (55.8) | 62.0±13.3 | |||
Age (yr) | 19-29 | 1,415 (8.7) | |||
30-39 | 2,537 (15.6) | ||||
40-49 | 2,951 (18.1) | ||||
50-59 | 3,307 (20.3) | ||||
60-69 | 2,716 (16.7) | ||||
≥70 | 3,344 (20.6) | ||||
Mean±SD | 53.1±16.8 | -0.201 | <0.0012 | ||
Education level | No education | 2,596 (16.0) | 55.9±13.43 | <0.0014 | |
Primary school | 2,958 (18.2) | 60.9±12.85 | |||
Middle school | 2,048 (12.6) | 62.6±13.11 | |||
High school | 5,295 (32.5) | 65.1±12.62 | |||
College or higher | 3,373 (20.7) | 68.1±11.84 | |||
Monthly household income (×104 KRW) | ≤100 | 5,539 (34.0) | |||
101-200 | 3,194 (19.6) | ||||
201-300 | 3,011 (18.5) | ||||
301-400 | 1,791 (11.0) | ||||
≥401 | 2,735 (16.8) | ||||
Mean±SD | 245.7±235.8 | 0.233 | <0.0012 | ||
Moderate or high-intensity physical activity3 | No | 11,405 (70.1) | 62.6±13.5 | <0.0011 | |
Yes | 4,865 (29.9) | 64.6±12.7 | |||
Skipping breakfast5 | No | 13,868 (85.2) | 63.3±13.3 | <0.0021 | |
Yes | 2,402 (14.8) | 62.4±13.3 | |||
Sleep time (hr) | Mean±SD | 6.6±1.3 | 0.102 | <0.0012 | |
Disease diagnoses by doctor during lifetime | Hypertension | 3,616 (22.2) | |||
Diabetes | 1,291 (7.9) | ||||
Arthritis | 2,748 (16.9) | ||||
No. of diseases | Mean±SD | 0.5±0.7 | -0.164 | <0.0011 | |
Unmet healthcare needs | No | 13,533 (83.2) | 64.0±13.0 | <0.0011 | |
Yes | 2,737 (16.8) | 58.8±14.0 |
SD, standard deviation; KRW, Korean won.
1 Statistical analysis conducted by t-test.
2 Pearson’s correlation coefficient.
3 In the past week, engaged in high-intensity physical activity for at least 20 minutes per day for 3 or more days or moderate physical activity for at least 30 minutes per day for 5 or more days.
4 Statistical analysis conducted by ANOVA.
5 In the past week, skipped breakfast 5 or more times.
Characteristic | Classification | n (%) |
Happiness index |
|
---|---|---|---|---|
Mean±SD | p-value | |||
Contact1 with relatives | No | 8,207 (50.4) | 61.9±13.5 | <0.0012 |
Yes | 8,063 (49.6) | 64.5±12.9 | ||
Contact1 with neighbors | No | 5,042 (31.0) | 63.9±13.1 | <0.0012 |
Yes | 11,228 (69.0) | 62.8±13.3 | ||
Contact1 with friends | No | 8,574 (52.7) | 60.9±13.4 | <0.0012 |
Yes | 7,696 (47.3) | 65.7±12.6 | ||
Participation3 in religious activities | No | 12,827 (78.8) | 62.6±13.2 | <0.0012 |
Yes | 3,443 (21.2) | 65.2±13.5 | ||
Participation3 in social activities | No | 6,678 (41.0) | 59.2±14.0 | <0.0012 |
Yes | 9,592 (59.0) | 65.9±12.0 | ||
Participation3 in leisure activities | No | 12,488 (76.8) | 61.3±13.1 | <0.0012 |
Yes | 3,782 (23.3) | 69.5±11.8 | ||
Participation3 in community service activities | No | 15,177 (93.3) | 62.7±13.3 | <0.0012 |
Yes | 1,093 (6.7) | 70.1±11.5 | ||
Deprivation index | Mean±SD | -1.58±5.01 | -0.164 | <0.0014 |
Characteristic | Classification | Basic model |
Model 1 |
Model 2 |
Model 3 |
|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Estimate | p-value | Estimate | p-value | Estimate | p-value | |||
Sex | Male | 0.565 | 0.004 | 0.580 | 0.003 | |||
Age | 0.010 | 0.271 | 0.011 | 0.249 | ||||
Education level | 1.600 | <0.001 | 1.582 | <0.001 | ||||
Monthly househdd income | 0.006 | <0.001 | 0.006 | <0.001 | ||||
Moderate or high-intensity physical activity | 0.956 | <0.001 | 0.962 | <0.001 | ||||
Skipping breakfast1 | -2.486 | <0.001 | -2.488 | <0.001 | ||||
Mean sleep time | 0.706 | <0.001 | 0.710 | <0.001 | ||||
Unmet healthcare needs | -4.377 | <0.001 | -4.383 | <0.001 | ||||
No. of diseases | -0.620 | <0.001 | -0.622 | <0.001 | ||||
Social network | Relatives | 2.354 | <0.001 | 2.370 | <0.001 | |||
Neighbors | 1.286 | <0.001 | 1.345 | <0.001 | ||||
Friends | 1.680 | <0.001 | 1.675 | <0.001 | ||||
Participation in social activities | Religious | 1.585 | <0.001 | 1.576 | <0.001 | |||
Social | 3.489 | <0.001 | 3.470 | <0.001 | ||||
Leisure | 3.676 | <0.001 | 3.663 | <0.001 | ||||
Community service | 1.723 | <0.001 | 1.740 | <0.001 | ||||
Deprivation index | -0.422 | <0.001 | -0.109 | 0.025 | ||||
Random effect | ||||||||
Personal-level variance | 159.51*** | 129.75*** | 159.55*** | 129.75*** | ||||
Regional-level variance | 19.35*** | 14.55*** | 14.26*** | 14.28*** | ||||
Intraclass correlation coefficient | 0.108 | 0.101 | 0.082 | 0.099 | ||||
χ2 | Reference | 3,353*** | 65*** | 3,354*** | ||||
R2 (personal-level) | Reference | 0.187 | 0.000 | 0.187 | ||||
R2 (regional-level) | Reference | 0.248 | 0.263 | 0.262 |
Source from Kim et al. Study on determinants of happiness and happiness index in Koreans. Seoul: Korea Institute for Health and Social Affairs; 2008 [10].
Category | Variable name | Definition |
---|---|---|
Personal characteristics | ||
Exercise and physical activity | Moderate or greater physical activity | Proportion of people who, for the past week, engaged in high-intensity physical activity1 for at least 20 minutes per day on 3 or more days per week or moderate physical activity2 for at least 30 minutes per day on 5 or more days per week |
Nutrition | Skipping breakfast | Proportion of people who skipped breakfast 5 or more times in the past week |
Mental health | Mean sleep time | Mean sleep time per day |
Illness | Doctor diagnosis of hypertension, diabetes, or arthritis during lifetime | Percentage of people who have been diagnosed with hypertension, diabetes, or arthritis by a doctor |
Healthcare use | Unmet healthcare needs | Percentage of people who, in the past year, did not receive the healthcare they needed |
Socio-physical environment | Rate of social network contact (relatives, neighbors, or friends) | Percentage of people who engage in social network contact (relatives, neighbors, or friends) at least once per week |
Rate of participation in social activities (religious, social, leisure, or community service) | Percentage of people who regularly participate in social activities (religious, social, leisure, or community service) at least once per month | |
Regional characteristics | ||
Deprivation index | Rate of education level at or below high school graduation | Percentage of people aged 25-64 years who have education level at or below high school graduation |
Rate of non-home-ownership | Percentage of households that do not own a home | |
Rate of lease or rent | Percentage of households that lease or rent their current residence | |
Rate of overcrowdedness | Percentage of households with ≥1.5 persons living together in a room | |
Rate of 65 years and older | Percentage of the population who are aged 65 years or older | |
Rate of female head of household | Percentage of households with a female as the head | |
Rate of widow and divorce | Percentage of those aged 15 or older who have been widowed or divorced | |
Rate of poor living conditions | Percentage of households whose residence does not have its own kitchen, running water, hot water bath, or flush toilet | |
Rate of one-person households | Percentage of households that consist of only one person |
Characteristic | Classification | n (%) | Happiness index |
||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean±SD | Correlation coefficient | p-value | |||
Sex | Male | 7,192 (44.2) | 64.6±13.0 | <0.001 |
|
Female | 9,078 (55.8) | 62.0±13.3 | |||
Age (yr) | 19-29 | 1,415 (8.7) | |||
30-39 | 2,537 (15.6) | ||||
40-49 | 2,951 (18.1) | ||||
50-59 | 3,307 (20.3) | ||||
60-69 | 2,716 (16.7) | ||||
≥70 | 3,344 (20.6) | ||||
Mean±SD | 53.1±16.8 | -0.201 | <0.001 |
||
Education level | No education | 2,596 (16.0) | 55.9±13.4 |
<0.001 |
|
Primary school | 2,958 (18.2) | 60.9±12.8 |
|||
Middle school | 2,048 (12.6) | 62.6±13.1 |
|||
High school | 5,295 (32.5) | 65.1±12.6 |
|||
College or higher | 3,373 (20.7) | 68.1±11.8 |
|||
Monthly household income (×104 KRW) | ≤100 | 5,539 (34.0) | |||
101-200 | 3,194 (19.6) | ||||
201-300 | 3,011 (18.5) | ||||
301-400 | 1,791 (11.0) | ||||
≥401 | 2,735 (16.8) | ||||
Mean±SD | 245.7±235.8 | 0.233 | <0.001 |
||
Moderate or high-intensity physical activity |
No | 11,405 (70.1) | 62.6±13.5 | <0.001 |
|
Yes | 4,865 (29.9) | 64.6±12.7 | |||
Skipping breakfast |
No | 13,868 (85.2) | 63.3±13.3 | <0.002 |
|
Yes | 2,402 (14.8) | 62.4±13.3 | |||
Sleep time (hr) | Mean±SD | 6.6±1.3 | 0.102 | <0.001 |
|
Disease diagnoses by doctor during lifetime | Hypertension | 3,616 (22.2) | |||
Diabetes | 1,291 (7.9) | ||||
Arthritis | 2,748 (16.9) | ||||
No. of diseases | Mean±SD | 0.5±0.7 | -0.164 | <0.001 |
|
Unmet healthcare needs | No | 13,533 (83.2) | 64.0±13.0 | <0.001 |
|
Yes | 2,737 (16.8) | 58.8±14.0 |
Characteristic | Classification | n (%) | Happiness index |
|
---|---|---|---|---|
Mean±SD | p-value | |||
Contact |
No | 8,207 (50.4) | 61.9±13.5 | <0.001 |
Yes | 8,063 (49.6) | 64.5±12.9 | ||
Contact |
No | 5,042 (31.0) | 63.9±13.1 | <0.001 |
Yes | 11,228 (69.0) | 62.8±13.3 | ||
Contact |
No | 8,574 (52.7) | 60.9±13.4 | <0.001 |
Yes | 7,696 (47.3) | 65.7±12.6 | ||
Participation |
No | 12,827 (78.8) | 62.6±13.2 | <0.001 |
Yes | 3,443 (21.2) | 65.2±13.5 | ||
Participation |
No | 6,678 (41.0) | 59.2±14.0 | <0.001 |
Yes | 9,592 (59.0) | 65.9±12.0 | ||
Participation |
No | 12,488 (76.8) | 61.3±13.1 | <0.001 |
Yes | 3,782 (23.3) | 69.5±11.8 | ||
Participation |
No | 15,177 (93.3) | 62.7±13.3 | <0.001 |
Yes | 1,093 (6.7) | 70.1±11.5 | ||
Deprivation index | Mean±SD | -1.58±5.01 | -0.164 | <0.001 |
Characteristic | Classification | Basic model | Model 1 |
Model 2 |
Model 3 |
|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Estimate | p-value | Estimate | p-value | Estimate | p-value | |||
Sex | Male | 0.565 | 0.004 | 0.580 | 0.003 | |||
Age | 0.010 | 0.271 | 0.011 | 0.249 | ||||
Education level | 1.600 | <0.001 | 1.582 | <0.001 | ||||
Monthly househdd income | 0.006 | <0.001 | 0.006 | <0.001 | ||||
Moderate or high-intensity physical activity | 0.956 | <0.001 | 0.962 | <0.001 | ||||
Skipping breakfast |
-2.486 | <0.001 | -2.488 | <0.001 | ||||
Mean sleep time | 0.706 | <0.001 | 0.710 | <0.001 | ||||
Unmet healthcare needs | -4.377 | <0.001 | -4.383 | <0.001 | ||||
No. of diseases | -0.620 | <0.001 | -0.622 | <0.001 | ||||
Social network | Relatives | 2.354 | <0.001 | 2.370 | <0.001 | |||
Neighbors | 1.286 | <0.001 | 1.345 | <0.001 | ||||
Friends | 1.680 | <0.001 | 1.675 | <0.001 | ||||
Participation in social activities | Religious | 1.585 | <0.001 | 1.576 | <0.001 | |||
Social | 3.489 | <0.001 | 3.470 | <0.001 | ||||
Leisure | 3.676 | <0.001 | 3.663 | <0.001 | ||||
Community service | 1.723 | <0.001 | 1.740 | <0.001 | ||||
Deprivation index | -0.422 | <0.001 | -0.109 | 0.025 | ||||
Random effect | ||||||||
Personal-level variance | 159.51 |
129.75 |
159.55 |
129.75 |
||||
Regional-level variance | 19.35 |
14.55 |
14.26 |
14.28 |
||||
Intraclass correlation coefficient | 0.108 | 0.101 | 0.082 | 0.099 | ||||
χ2 | Reference | 3,353 |
65 |
3,354 |
||||
R2 (personal-level) | Reference | 0.187 | 0.000 | 0.187 | ||||
R2 (regional-level) | Reference | 0.248 | 0.263 | 0.262 |
Subcategory | Survey question |
---|---|
A. Psychological stability | 1. How much self-esteem do you have? |
2. How would you rate your positive values and emotional state? | |
3. How satisfied are you with your appearance? | |
B. Family/marriage | 4. How satisfied are you with your family life or married life? |
5. How satisfied are you with your sex life? | |
6. How satisfied are you with the birth and development of your children? | |
C. Personal relationships | 7. How satisfied are you with your family members? |
8. How satisfied are you with your friends and colleagues? | |
9. How satisfied are you with regard to receiving positive acknowledgement from other people? | |
D. Community | 10. How satisfied are you with your community environment and infrastructure? |
E. Daily life | 11. How satisfied are you with leisure and rest? |
12. How satisfied are you with sleep (quantity and quality)? | |
F. Economic stability | 13. How much of your financial (income) goals (gains and accumulation) do you feel you have achieved? |
14. How capable are you of being able to buy or have whatever you want, whenever you want? | |
G. Work/occupation | 15. How fulfilling is your work? |
16. How closely does your current work match the work you wanted to do? | |
17. How satisfied are you with your salary and work environment? | |
H. Health | 18. How would you rate your health status? |
19. How would you rate your family members’ health status? | |
20. To what degree do you engage in regular physical exercise? | |
I. Residence | 21. How satisfied are you about ownership and quality of your residence? |
Category | Variable name | Definition |
---|---|---|
Personal characteristics | ||
Exercise and physical activity | Moderate or greater physical activity | Proportion of people who, for the past week, engaged in high-intensity physical activity |
Nutrition | Skipping breakfast | Proportion of people who skipped breakfast 5 or more times in the past week |
Mental health | Mean sleep time | Mean sleep time per day |
Illness | Doctor diagnosis of hypertension, diabetes, or arthritis during lifetime | Percentage of people who have been diagnosed with hypertension, diabetes, or arthritis by a doctor |
Healthcare use | Unmet healthcare needs | Percentage of people who, in the past year, did not receive the healthcare they needed |
Socio-physical environment | Rate of social network contact (relatives, neighbors, or friends) | Percentage of people who engage in social network contact (relatives, neighbors, or friends) at least once per week |
Rate of participation in social activities (religious, social, leisure, or community service) | Percentage of people who regularly participate in social activities (religious, social, leisure, or community service) at least once per month | |
Regional characteristics | ||
Deprivation index | Rate of education level at or below high school graduation | Percentage of people aged 25-64 years who have education level at or below high school graduation |
Rate of non-home-ownership | Percentage of households that do not own a home | |
Rate of lease or rent | Percentage of households that lease or rent their current residence | |
Rate of overcrowdedness | Percentage of households with ≥1.5 persons living together in a room | |
Rate of 65 years and older | Percentage of the population who are aged 65 years or older | |
Rate of female head of household | Percentage of households with a female as the head | |
Rate of widow and divorce | Percentage of those aged 15 or older who have been widowed or divorced | |
Rate of poor living conditions | Percentage of households whose residence does not have its own kitchen, running water, hot water bath, or flush toilet | |
Rate of one-person households | Percentage of households that consist of only one person |
Category | Municipal-level divisions | Towns |
---|---|---|
Combined | Gimhae-si | Saengnim-myeon and Sangdong-myeon; Hoehyeon-dong and Boowon-dong |
Changwon-si and Masan-gu | Gapo-dong, Gusan-myeon, and Hyun-dong; Odong-dong and Happo-dong | |
Uiryeong-gun | Bongsu-myeon and Burim-myeon | |
Jinju-si | Geumgok-myeon, Moonsan-eup, and Jinsung-myeon; Naedong-myeon, Jeongchon-myeon, Sabong-myeon, Ilbanseong-myeon, and Ibanseong-myeon; Daegok-myeon and Micheon-myeon; Kangnam-dong and Chilahm-dong; Joongang-dong and Bongahn-dong | |
Changwon-si and Jinhae-gu | Joongang-dong and Chungmu-dong | |
Hapcheon-gun | Chogye-myeon and Jeokjung-myeon | |
Excluded | Jinju-si | Jisu-myeon |
Hapcheon-gun | Ssangchaek-myeon |
SD, standard deviation; KRW, Korean won. Statistical analysis conducted by t-test. Pearson’s correlation coefficient. In the past week, engaged in high-intensity physical activity for at least 20 minutes per day for 3 or more days or moderate physical activity for at least 30 minutes per day for 5 or more days. Statistical analysis conducted by ANOVA. In the past week, skipped breakfast 5 or more times.
SD, standard deviation. Contact is defined as one or more times per week. Statistical analysis conducted by t-test. Participation is defined as one or more times per month. Pearson’s correlation coefficient.
In the past week, skipped breakfast 5 or more times. p<0.05, p<0.01, p<0.001.
Source from Kim et al. Study on determinants of happiness and happiness index in Koreans. Seoul: Korea Institute for Health and Social Affairs; 2008 [
High-intensity physical activity severely fatigues the body or makes the body very short-winded. Moderate physical activity slightly fatigues the body or makes the body slightly short-winded.